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JESSE WIEEIAMS, 

ORIGINATOR OF THE AMERICAN CHEESE FACTORY SYSTEM. 



WILLAED'S 



PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY: 



A COMPLETE TEEATISE ON 

DAIRY FARMS AI^D FARMING,— DAIRY STOCK AND STOCK 
FEEDING,— MILK, ITS MANAGEMENT AND MANUFACTURE 
INTO BUTTER AND CHEESE,— HISTORY AND MODE 
OF ORGANIZATION OF BUTTER AND CHEESE 
FACTORIES,— DAIRY UTENSILS, Etc., Etc. 



X. A. ViLLAED, A. M., "" o^- 

Editor of the Dairy Department of " Moore's Bural New- Yorker" and Lecturer at the Maine 
State Agricultural College, Cornell University, Etc., Etc. 



FULLY AND HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. 



NEW YORK: 
D. D. T. MOOEE, PTJBLISHEE, 

EUEAL NEW-YOEKEE OmOE. 

1872. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

D. D. T. MOORE, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



FBESS OF 

„ ~~~~ '- ' WTNKOOP & HALLENBECK, 

Smith & McDougal, Electrotypers. 



113 Fulton Steeet. 

HEW TOBK. . 



INDEX TO PARTS. 



PAGE. 

Pakt I.— INTRODUCTOEY 7 

II.— DAIRY FARMS AKD FIXTURES 25 

III.— MANAGEMENT OP GRASS LANDS 51 

IV.— STOCK— SELECTION, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OP FOR 

THE DAIRY 106 

v.- MILK 153 

VI.— ASSOCIATED DAIRYING — ITS RISE AND PROGRESS 213 

VII.— ENGLISH DAIRY PRACTICE 287 

VIII.— COMPOSITION OP CHEESE 297 

IX.— VOELCKER'S CHEESE EXPERIMENTS 333 

X.— PRELIMINARY TO CHEESE-MAKING 352 

XL— CHEESE MANUFACTURE 426 

XIL— BUTTER MANUFACTURE 479 

XIII.— APPENDIX ....516 



INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS, 



PAGE. 
Agitator, Austin's 454 

— Rake 467 

AlderneyBull 116 

— Cow 117 

Automatic Heater and Cheese Vat 386 

A yrshire Bull 114 

— Cow 115 

Bain, Large Stock, Elevation of 400 

— Engine room 401 

— Second floor 401 

— Sectional view of frame 401 

— Meadow Brook, Elevation S4 

— Lower floor 35 

— Upper floor 35 

— Model Farm 517 

— Basement 518 

— End view of frame-work 519 

Bull, Alderney 116 

— Ayrshire 114 

— Devon 112 

— Holstein 118 

— Short-Horn 110 

Butter Bowl and Ladle 250 

— Factory, Ground plan of Orange County Milk 

Association 251 

— Rockville 252 

— — Weeks', Elevation 492 

— Ground plan of .' 493 

Butter Packages, Orange County 254 

— Pail, Return 254 

— — Westcott's 513 

— Worker, Corbin's 512 

— — Orange County 253 

— — Bound lever 512 

— Workers with fluted rollers 511 

— — Cortland County 510 

Can, Factory weigliing 399 

Castor for Curd Sink 410 

Cheese Hoop. English, Expanding 293 

— Mammoth 3-0 

— Press, Factory 401 

— — Frazer's Gang 413 

— — Oysten's Herkimer County 400 

Churn, Orange County 249 

— Tornado 507 

Churning by water power 504 

Conductor Head 399 

Cow, Alderney 117 

— Ayrshire 115 

— Devon 113 

— Escutcheon of bad 125 

— first-rate 12! 

— . mediocre 124 

— Holstein 118 

— Native 109 

— Short-Horn Ill 

Cream Gauge 159 

— Strainer, Baker's Excelsior 4b9 

Creamery, Ground Plan of Walkill 248 

Circulating Coil, Heater and Cheese Vat, Millar's 391 
Curd Mill 408 

— — Ralph's American 409 

— Scoop 410 

Dairy Barn, Meadow Brook Farm 34 

— Lower floor 35 

— Upper floor 35 

— Dipper 409 

— House, Cheese 44 

— Basement 45 

— Second floor 45 

— Knives 40') 

Dashers, Churn 249 

Dog Power for Churning 508 

— Emery's 508 

— Old style 507 

Elmere Butter Package.... 513 

Engine Boom for Barn 41 

Factory, Ground Plan of Truxton 227 

— Herkimer, End Elevation Manufacturing De- 

partment 228 

— — Front Elevation 228 

— — Ground Plan of 229 

— Ingersoll 378 

— — Ground Plan of 379 

— Milk Cans 396 

— Newville, Ground Plan 3T0 

— — Second Story 371 

— —Third Story 371 

— Sanborn S'iQ 

Fill er. Curd 4 

Firkin 254 

— Half 254 

Frame for Milk Cooler Water Tank 376 



Pumlgator, Hutchins', for Destroying Lice on 

Cattle 152 

Gate, Weigh-Can 399 

Gauge, Cream 159 

Glass, Cream 159 

Grass, June 243 

— Meadow Fescue 244 

— Orchard 244 

— Poa Compressa 245 

— Red Top 243 

— Sweet-scented Vernal 245 

Hand Power for Churning— Horizontal Shaft 506 

Handle, Can Cover 398 

— Side 393 

Handles, Milk Can 398 

Heater 394 

— and Vat 392 

— for Cooking Feed for Stock 395 

Holstein Bull in 

— Cow 118 

Hoops, Cheese Press 404 

— and Wooden Press Rings i 405 

Horse Power for Churning, Richardson's 609 

Jar, Rennet 360 

Knives, Dairy 406 

Lactometer 156 

JNlacliine, Cheese Bandaging 421 

Meadow Fescue 244 

Milk Can, Factory 396 

— —Iron-Clad 397 

— Cooler, Burnap's 375 

— — Bussey's Improved 374 

— — Hawley's 375 

— — Northrop's .■ ,376 

— Coolers 374 

— Factory, Ground Plan of Provost's Condensed 202 

Mop, Rubber 4:0 

Native Cow 109 

New Boiler and Engine ,^^6 

Oneida Vat and Heater 389 

— — Cross Section of 390 

Pail, Flat-sided 410 

— for Setting Milk 494 

— — — the Milk, and Cream Dipper 249 

— Philadelphia Butter 491 

Pan, Jennings' Milk 486 

— Jewett'sMilk 487 

Pans, Milk, Diagram of 486 

Per Cent. Glass 169 

Pipes, Heating 393 

Poa Compressa 245 

Position of Heater and Vats 393 

Plaster Sower, Seymour's 68 

Press, English Ceeese 291 

— Oyston's Herkimer County 400 

Presses, Factory 401 

Puncture, Point for in Hoven 152 

Rectangular Cheese Curb and Press 414 

Red Top 243 

Rennet Jar 3(i0 

Return Butter Pail 254 

Rubber Ring 405 

Sanborn Factory, Basement 370 

— — Ground Plan 370 

Scales ; 411 

— Jones' Stock 412 

Scoop, Curd 410 

Screws, Cheese Press 402 

Sectional Steam Generator and Boiler, Clark's.... 383 

Self -Heaters 388 

Short-Horn Bull no 

— —Cow Ill 

Spring-pole Power for Churning 504 

Stock Barn, Large 40 

— — Second Fluor 41 

— — Sectional View of 41 

Stomach, Cow's first 151 

Sweet-scented Vernal Grass 245 

Tester, Milk, Glass Tubes for 422 

Thermometer, Dairy 410 

— Floating 156 

— Nickel Plated 156 

Tin Mil k Pail . Ralph 's 354 

— — Pails, Millar's 353 

Tornado Churn 507 

Trocar 151 

Vat, Oneida Farm 396 

— Ralph's Oneida Factory 389 

Vats and Heater 394 

Vertical Engine and Boiler 384 

Water-Power for Churning 505 

Weigh-Can Gate 399 

Whey Strainer and Siphon 407 



JPREF^OE. 



Up to the present time there lias been no Standard Work on Practical Dairy- 
Husbandry, or upon the improved American methods of manufacturing Butter and 
Cheese. A book treating of these topics has long been needed, and this work is designed 
to meet the wants of tliose who are looking for a safe, practical Dairy Manual. 

With more tlian twenty years' experience in Dairy Farming, and an acquaintance 
from extensive personal observation with the best methods of dairy management in this 
Country and Europe— accustomed to the practical handling of Milk and the manufacture 
of its products— in fine, having made a specialty of this branch of industry, the writer 
ought to be able to discriminate between the practical and merely theoretical in dairy 
management. 

Dairy Farming in this country is no holiday aflFair. The men who engage in it are, 
for the most part, seeking useful information— sucli knowledge as may be turned to a 
good account in their business. In other words, tliey seek to learn how Dairying in its 
several brandies can best be made to pay. With lliis standpoint in view, no theories 
have been recommended which cannot stand tlie practical test of usefulness. I am not 
insensible to the favor with which the results of my experiments and observations have 
been received, or to the confidence reposed in me by American Dairymen. 1 can only 
say that I have been earnest for improvement in this branch of industry, and have 
labored lieartily for tlie advancement of the whole Dairy Interest throughout the whole 
dairy districts of our country. 

The work here presented is not a compilation— though I have not hesitated to quote 
from other writers whenever their statements seemed to be useful. In malcing such 
quotations I have aimed to give proper credit, since nothing seems to me more repre- 
liensible in a writer than the appropriation of another's labor and brains witliout due 
acknowledgment. Among the papers to which special attention is called are those of 
Dr. VoELCKEU on the "Composition of Cheese" and " Ciieese Experiments;" also on 
"Recent English Dairy Improvements," by Mr. Harding of Marksbury, England. 
Tliese papers hitherto have not been in an available form for the American reader, and 
will be found, it is believed, both interesting and valuable. In a few instances I have 
selected matter from my own pen which has appeared in the Rural New-Yorker, Western 
Rural, and other publications ; but for the most part the work has been freshly written, 
and gives the most approved practice in dairying as conducted at the present day. 

I trust it will not be deemed out of place here to say that I feel under deep 
obligations to the Press for the uniform courtesy extended to my various contributions to 
Agricultural Literature, througli a long series of years. Profoundly grateful for these 
favors, I can only hope in the present instance that this volume may be worthy a candid 
criticism. And that it may prove useful to the class for whom it is intended is the sincere 
wisli of the Author. X. A. W. 

Little Fal,t,s, Herkimer Co., N. Y., 18T1. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



THE AMEEICAN DAIET BELT. 

The gteat American dairy belt lies between the fortieth and forty-fifth 
parallels of latitude. It stretches from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and 
possibly to the Pacific. Within its limits are New England, New York, 
Pennsylvania, the Northern parts of Ohio, Illinois and Indiana, the greater 
portion of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, and a part of the 
Canadas. Of all this belt probably not more than a third of the land is adapted 
to dairying. The dairy lands are quite irregular in outline, lying not always 
continuously together, but often detached, and not unfrequently, if repre- 
sented on the map, would have the appearance of islands. 

THE CHAEACTEEISTICS OF A GOOD DAIBT COUNTRY 

are, high, undulating surfaces ; numerous springs and streams of never 
failing water ; a soil retentive of moisture ; a sweet and nutritious herbage, 
that springs up spontaneously and continues to grow with great tenacity ; a 
rather low average temperature ; frequent showers, rather than periodical 
drouths, and sufficient covering of the ground in winter to protect grass 
roots, so that the herbage may be permanent or enduring. 

Doubtless within the limits of the United States, on high table lands, or 
on the lower slopes of mountainous ranges, there are soils eminently adapted 
to dairying ; but we have no large and continuous stretch of country, like 
that to which we have referred, where the business naturally would develop 
itself into a specialty. 

DAIRY COMPARED WITH OTHER HUSBANDRIES. 

In my opinion, upon this Northern belt of dairy lands, there is no descrip- 
tion of farming that promises better prospect of remuneration than the dairy. 
I refer now to farming in the broadest sense of the word, where thousands 
grow certain products, and compete with each other in the great markets of 
the world. If one happens to be possessed of land in the immediate vicinity 
of towns and cities, upon which market gardening may be conducted with 
facility, that land may without doubt be put to more profit in growing vege- 
tables than in dairying. Fruit lands, eligibly situated and intelligently man- 
aged, may also be a source of greater profit. 



8 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Limited specialties of this kind, in Avhich only the few comparatively can 
engage, must not be embraced in the statement. Compared with other great 
interests of the countiy, such as the production of wheat or corn, and other 
cereals, the raising and fattening of stock for the shambles, sheep hus- 
bandry, hop growing, and the like ; each and all are inferior in their re- 
munerative prospects to the dairy. 

In the first place, the milk producer enters the great markets of the 
world, with less competition than he who is engaged in almost any other 
branch of farming. He has a wider range and a more diversified product to 
dispose of. The milk farmer may be a breeder to some extent of thorough- 
bred cattle. After the first outlay, (and that may be on a small scale at the 
commencement,) the expense of raising a thorough-bred cow will be no more 
than the raising of the meanest scrub of our common stock. Then, if there is 
any profit in fattening stock for the shambles, animals which fail in milk for 
the dairy, and are to be " turned," can be employed for this purpose. Both 
of these specialties are in the line, and connected with the dairy, as is also 
the fattening of swine on dairy slops. 

Again, the yield of his cows takes three forms of a commercial product, 
each of which enters into universal consumption, and is regarded both as a 
luxury and a necessity — Milk, Butter, and Cheese. The last two are highly 
concentrated forms of food, and less bulky of transport than other articles of 
food of the same value — for, two hundred pounds of butter, costing eighty 
dollars, will occujDy no more space in a railroad car than a barrel of flour 
costing but six dollars. In other words, the eighty dollars' worth of butter 
can be carried as cheaply to market as the six dollars' worth of flour. 

This alone is an immense advantage, for when the farmer comes to 
deduct freights on a low-pi-iced, bulky product, together with commission to 
the middle men for handling, and there will remain often but little profit for 
the producer. In New York we have studied this question of 

THE DAIRY AND ITS RELATIVE ADVANTAGES, 

for many years. We cannot afford to grow corn, for the West, with its rich 
prairie and bottom lands, easy of cultivation by machinery, can undersell us. 
Look at the average price of wheat for a series of years, and consider 
whether the hard, tenacious soil of New York and New England can produce 
it at a profit. How is it with wool ? The immense plains of Texas and the 
West are competing with us, and can always afford to sell for less money 
than it costs us to produce it. We have no chance to enter European 
markets with our wool, for Australia and South America stand in the way. 

A GOOD DAIRY FARM, 

is a good Stock Farm, but stock farms are not necessarily good dairy farms. 
It is doubtful whether the great stock farms of the Southwest will ever be 
employed largely for dairying. The lands are not so well provided with 
water, and the climate is too warm to secure the finest flavored goods. Be- 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 9 

sides, the stock farmer of the West and Southwest can at present make more 
money in raising stock than by dairying. With the great raih'oad facilities 
being developed in these directions, the N'ew York and New England 
farmer will find it more and more difficult as a specialty to compete with 
these people in raising fat cattle for the shambles. On the other hand, there 
has been for the past few years a gradual but constant increase in the 
demand and price of dairy products. If you take 

THE GOLD PRICES FOE DIFPEEENT KINDS OP FOOD 

in London for a series of years, the statistics present the remarkable fact 
that dairy products have remained steady, while other products have 
fluctuated in prices, and at times become very much. depressed. The reason 
of this is that the whole world is not competing in this class of production. 
The supply being uniformly within the limits of consumption, 

A GOOD ARTICLE IS ALWAYS NEEDED, 

and prices do not fall so low, comparatively, as for other products. It must 
be observed, too, that upon dairy lands the milk product, year after year, 
is pretty uniform as to quantity. Upon natural grazing lands there is no 
crop so reliable as grass. Grain, fruit, hops, and the like, are liable to 
numerous accidents that lessen or destroy the yield, but which do not obtain 
in the grass crop. Hence, the dairyman can* count pretty accurately upon 
what his farm will yield, if stocked with an average lot of cows. Again, his 
lands are not so liable to be exhausted as those devoted to grain growing, 
and with an abundant source of manure at his command should be growing 
more and more productive from year to year. The great question with 
dairy farmers has been in regard to 

OVBE-PEODUCTION OF DAIRY GOODS. 

Since the inauguration of the Associated Dairy System, fears have been 
entertained that the cheese and butter product of the country would be 
beyond a healthy consumptive demand. Dairy products are so liable to 
decay that dealers do not care to take the risk of storing and holding in 
large quantities. They must go into quick consumption, and hence, any 
considerable surplus, accumulating from year to year, would so depreciate 
prices that the business could not be carried on with profit. Statistics thus 
far show that in Europe production does not keep pace with consumption, 
and this difference is every year growing wider and wider. In the United 
States the 

HOME CONSUMPTION OP BUTTER AND CHEESE, 

of late years, has more than kept pace with production, notwithstanding the 
extraordinary development of dairying under the associated system. 
Previous to the war of the Rebellion we exported butter ; but for some 
years past the home consumption has taken all our make, and at a price 
which consumers denounce as extortionate. 



10 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The best Normandy butter sells in London to-day at about 150 shillings 
per cwt., or thirty-two cents gold per pound. Deducting freight and com- 
missions, and turning the gold into currency, it would net the shipper in the 
States a price below what the best grades are worth at home. In 1860 

THE PEODUCTION OF BUTTER IN THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES 

was nearly four hundred and sixty millions of pounds. It is, perhaps, to-day 
over six hundred millions of pounds, and if we were over-producing prices 
would decline, so that shippers could afford to export. Wherever you go 
among consumers in towns and cities you hear loud complaints of the diffi- 
culty of getting good butter, and the monstrous price which they are forced 
to pay. They talk bitterly against the cheese factories, charging them with 
the crime of absorbing the butter makers, and thus cutting off production. 
They forget that the rapid increase of population and the gormandizing 
habits of our people in the use of butter, are the causes which have led to 
this condition of things. There are 

NO SUCH BUTTER EATERS 

on the globe as we Americans. Everything that we cook must be swimming 
in butter. Our Irish domestics, many of whom never ate a pound of butter 
during their whole lives before .reaching these shores, seem never able to get 
enough of this unctuous food. The waste of butter among all classes is 
enormous, and, in an economic point of view, is truly alarming. To those 
who have traveled in Europe and contrasted the difference in the habits of 
people there and here in the use of butter, it need be no surprise that our 
dairies are taxed to their utmost to satisfy the craving demands of our butter 
eaters. If the habit increases with our constantly increasing population, the 
prospects of butter dairying cannot be considered at all discouraging. If we 
take the article of cheese, our people are evidently beginning to follow 
English tastes in their appreciation of this nutritious article of food. We 
are exj)orting now but little more cheese, comparatively, than in 1861, 
perhaps twenty millions of pounds more, and yet our production has in- 
creased from one hundred and three millions of pounds, in 1860, to two 
hundred and forty millions of pounds in 1869. ISTotwithstanding the war ol 
the rebellion, and the consequent poverty of the Southern States, which cut ofi 

THE CHEESE TRADE 

in that direction, the home consumption has gone on increasing from sixty 
three millions of pounds, in 1860, to one hundred and eighty millions of 
pounds, in 1869. The average increase of home consumption has been at the 
rate of thirteen millions of pounds per year. When the Southern States get 
into a healthy, prosperous condition, with the wonderful development o: 
railroad facilities, the opening of the Southern Pacific Railroad, the influx of 
Chinese laborers, and a direct trade with China, it is doubtful whether the 
dairies in this country can be developed sufficiently to supply the demands.' 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 11 

But there must always be a large dairy interest employed in supplying 
fresh milk to our cities and manufacturing towns. This is more apparent 
from year to year, and the real question of the dairy interest to-day should 
be, to so equalize the supply of 

MILK, BUTTER AND CHEESE, 

tnat the nighest prices may be reached for eacn. I'he difficulty is not so 
much the fear that dairying will be overdone, as that the equilibrium will 
be disturbed, and either one or the other of these products be increased 
beyond its proper proportion. If a large proportion of the cheese makers 
were to go to making butter, the butter interest would be overdone and 
prices decline; and the same would result to the cheese interest from a large 
change from butter to cheese dairying ; while the milk interest would be 
greatly injured if a large proportion of dairymen should enter into that 
branch, either by furnishing condensed milk, or fresh milk, for city con- 
sumption. When Jesse Williams, the unpretending farmer of Rome, in 
1850 conceived the idea of 

ASSOCIATED DAIRIES, 

it was forced upon him as a necessary means for accommodating members of 
his own family. He had not the remotest idea that he had hit upon a great 
principle — a principle that was of wide application, and which was destined, 
in all coming time, to be the means of lifting heavy burthens from the arms 
of toil. It is estimated there are now more than a thousand factories in the 
State of New York alone, and they are extending rapidly in other States. 
They have been carried to the Canadas and across the Atlantic ; and 
wherever cheese-making shall be known in after times, it will be inseparably 
connected with the name of Jessie Williams. But aside from the 
burthens of toil and the drudgery from which this system operates to relieve 
our farmers, it has developed another great economic principle, 

THE means of producing FOOD CHEAPLY, 

a principle which the Creator, in His infinite wisdom it seems, is now im- 
pressing upon the minds of people, by the establishment and wide-spread 
dissemination of this system. The question of food in all densely populated 
communities is one that underlies all others. No nation can rise to the 
highest civilization and power without her people are supplied with an 
abundance of 

CHEAP AND NUTRITIOUS FOOD. 

Where food is scarce, or is wanting in nutrition, there you will find 
poverty, squalid wretchedness, demoralization and crime — elements of weak- 
ness, opposed to progress and civilization. Food nourishes not only the 
body but the brain, and the cheapness and abundance of good food has had 
much to do in the rapid progress and active development of mind among the 
American jseople. But our population is increasing with wonderful rapidity, 



12 Practical Bairy Husbandry. 

and already the supply of meats in the Atlantic States is becoming compara- 
tively scarce. They are to-day at such a price that poor people have difficulty 
in obtaining them. As our population increases there will be a still further 
scarcity of meats for the supply of our peoj^le. Some other form of animal 
food must be substituted in part, at least, for beef, and the question is be- 
coming every year more and more urgent, as to how it can be produced 
cheaply. And, in my opinion, we must look to the dairy as the chief means 
of solving this difficulty. I can illustrate this more satisfactorily, perhaps, by 
drawing a comparison between 

THE RELATIVE COST OF PKODUCIISTG BEEP AND CHEESE. 

A steer which will weigh one thousand five hundred pounds at four years 
must be a good animal, and will yield say one thousand pounds of meat. 
Three steers at four years, on the above assumption, would produce three 
thousands pounds of beef. Now, a good cow will yield from five hundred to 
six hundred pounds of cheese per year ; if we take her product for twelve 
years at four hundred and fifty pounds per year, deducting the first two 
years in which, as a heifer, she yields nothing, we have four thousand five 
hundred pounds of good, wholesome animal food. In other words, three 
steers at four years old, representing twelve years' growth for beef, amounts 
to three thousand pounds, while one cow, twelve years for cheese, four 
thousand five hundred pounds. But a pound of cheese, equal in nutrition 
to two pounds of beef, would make the difference still greater, giving 
for the dairy nine thousand pounds of food on the one hand, against three 
thousand pounds of meat on the other. Then there is cost of cooking, and 
the bone to be charged against the beef, which, as will be seen, adds further 
to the expense of that kind of food. 



THE ECON^OMICAL USE OP POOD 



I 



is not well understood by the majority of people, and perhaps there is no food 
in general use the nutritive value of which is more under-estimated than that of 
milk. Indeed, many people regard it more as a luxury than as afibrding any 
substantial nourishment like that obtained from meats or vegetables. Milk 
is often used sparingly, under the impression that it must always be an ex- 
pensive article of food, when in fact it is generally cheaper than any meats 
that can be had in the market ; and we believe if its relative nutritive 
value, as compared with beef, was more generally understood, it would be J 
more largely consumed, as a matter of economy. 

Good beef contains from fifty to sixty per cent, of water, and milk about 
eighty-seven per cent. On an average, then, three pounds and a half of milk, i 
or a little more than three pints by measure, are equal in nutrition to a * 
pound of beef If the beef is Avorth twenty cents per pound, the milk, at ten 
cents per quart, would be the cheaper food of the two. Dr. Bellows gives 
the following analysis of several articles of food, in their natural state, from 
which 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



13 



THE RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MILK 

may be readily compared. We place them in a table, as more convenient for 
reference and comparison : 





Nitrates. 


CARBONATES. 


Phosphates. 


Wateu. 


Milk of Cow 


5.0 
15.0 
11.0 
12.5 
10.0 
14 
17 
15K 


8.0 
30.0 
35.0 
40.0 
50.0 
very little. 
very little, 
uone. 


1.0 
5.0 
3.5 
3.5 
1.5 
5 to 6 
5 to 6 
4M 


86 


Beef 


50 


Lamb 


50 5 


Mutton 


44 


Pork 


38 5 


Codfish...... 


79 


Trout 


75 


White of eggs 


80 







Of the nitrates, or flesh-forming elements, the beef contains just three 
times that of the milk, while the carbonates, or respiratory and fat-producing 
elements in the beef, are three and three-fourth times richer than the milk. 
The solid constituents of the two, in a hundred parts, would be in milk 
fourteen, and in beef fifty, or very nearly as one to three and one-half Con- 
sequently, if both be represented in pounds, it would take three and one-half 
pounds of milk to give the same amount of nutrition that is contained in one 
pound of beef. In fish and eggs the difference would not be so great. Now 
a quart of milk will weigh about thirty-six ounces, consequently the three 
pints of milk by measure will weigh three pounds six ounces, representing 
very nearly the equivalent in nutrition for a pound of beef. As there is 
always more or less waste in beef, even after it is separated from the bone, 
on account of muscle, tendons, cartilage and the like, which cannot be con- 
sumed, the three pints of milk may be considered to rej)resent a fair equiva- 
lent in nutrition for a pound of beef, exclusive of bone. On this assumption, 
if a pound of beef, exclusive of bone, is worth twenty cents, milk should be 
counted at a little over thirteen cents per quart, the exact figures being thir- 
teen and one-third cents. But if we reckon the loss from bone which the 
consumer takes with the meat, it will be seen the cost is considerably more, 
which would by so much farther enhance the value of the milk. When milk 
is selling at six cents per quart, beef, exclusive of bone, at nine cents per 
pound would be the equivalent. It will be seen by carefully comparing the 
analysis of milk and meats, and making the proper deductions on the latter 
on account of waste, of bones, etc., that there is less difference between the 
economical value of milk and beefsteak, or fish and eggs, than is commonly 
supposed. Milk contains all the elements of nutrition, and is more whole- 
some than meats like pork and veal, which are justly regarded with suspicion. 
It should be more largely used in hot weather than it is, and especially in 
the diet of children, as it supplies material for building up the bones and 
muscles, which superfine flour, and butter and sugar, do not. It may not be 
advisable to substitute milk wholly for meat in any system of diet. Still by 
using smaller quantities of meat with which to make up the requisite propor- 
tion of animal food, health would doubtless be greatly promoted, and at 



14 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

much less expense, than where meat is exclusively used. The market value 
of milk is generally very much below its nutritive equivalent m beef; 
and those who are looking to economy in foods will do well to give this 
question attention. 

MTLK A'S A FOOD. 

Professor Lton Playfair, in speaking of milk as a food, says :— " We 
see how carefully nature has provided for the growth of the infant. In the 
casein there is abundance of structural food for the building up of organs; 
in the highly combustible fat or butter, and in the less carbonaceous sugars 
we have a full supply of heat givers ; while in the mineral substances, bone 
earth for the building up of the young skeleton, besides common salt, potash 
salts, iron, silica, and every mineral ingredient that we find m the body. It 
may be interesting to uiquire with regard to the typical food, what proportion 
the structural materials bear to the respiratory or heat-giving substances. 
For this purpose, we must convert both the butter and sugar into a common 
value, and calculate them as if they were starch, which is the most common 
heat-c^iving body in different kinds of food. Estimated m this way, the 
quantity of heat-givers is three times greater than that of fiesh-formers. But 
the nutrition of the young animal is in many respects different from that of 
the adult In the case of the latter it is only necessary to supply the daily 
waste of the tissues ; in the former it is also requisite to furnish materials for 
the growing bodv, and also abundant fuel to maintain the higher temperature: 
of the infant With this difference kept in view, all our efforts m diet ap- 
pear to aim at imitating the typical food, milk, by adjusting a proper balance 
between the flesh-formers, heat-givers, and mineral bodies. Thus with ai 
flesh-forming aliment like beef or mutton, we take a rich heat-givmg one 
like potatoes or rice. To fat bacon, abounding already in l^eat-givers, we 
add beans, which compensate for its poverty in flesh-formers. With fowls ^ 
poor in fat, we consume ham, richin this combustible. Our appetites and 
tastes become the regulators of food, and adjust the relative proportions of 
its several ingredients; and until the appetite becomes depraved by mdul. 
gence or disease, it is a safe guide in the selection of aliments." 

MUSCLB-MAKIHTG FOOD. 

The importance of using food containing a due proportion of muscle 
making elements, or albuminoids, has been demonstrated in repeated experi 
ments, when loss of vigor and health has followed a continual use of food 
lacking in these elements. The experiments made in five prisons m Scotland 
bear upon this point. They were made to ascertain the smallest amount of 
food and the proportion of nitrates and carbonates, that would keep the 
prisoner up to his weight while doing nothing, when it was found that by 
reducing the proportion of nitrates in the food from four ounces to two and 
three-quarter ounces daily the prisoners lost weight rapidly. Dr. Bellows 
in commenting upon these experiments, which he gives m detail, says : 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 15 

"It is a remarkable fact which shows the importance of connecting science 
with practice, that the deterioration in the quality of the diet in Dundee 
prison consisted in substituting molasses for milk, which had been previously 
used with oatmeal porridge and oatmeal cakes, molasses being entirely 
destitute of muscle-making material, while milk contains a full proportion of 
these important principles. This one experiment and its results are worthy 
of study by every mother and every housekeeper in the land. If any class of 
persons would suffer less than others from the use of too much carbonaceous 
and too little nitrogenous food, it would be that class who are idle ; and yet 
the one hundred prisoners of Dundee, with an ounce more of the fat and 
heat-making principle than those of Edinburgh, lost two hundred and seven- 
teen and one-half pounds, while the same number in Edinburgh lost only 
twenty-seven pounds; the difference in their diet being, as stated in the 
report, that the prisoners of Edinburgh had milk with their porridge and 
cakes, while those of Dundee had molasses instead." 

And he remarks further : — " If the same experiment had been tried on 
men in active life, or on -children who are never still except when asleep, the 
result would have been more remarkable, in j^roportion to the greater waste 
of muscle in those who are active, and the greater demand for nitrogenous 
food ; and yet how few mothers stop to consider or take pains to know, 
whether gingerbread made of fine flour, which has but a trace of food for 
muscle or brain, and sugar or molasses, and perhaps butter, which have none, 
or cakes made with unbolted wheat mixed with milk or buttermilk, all of 
which abound in muscle and brain-feeding materials, is the best food for a 
growing, active child ; indeed, the whole food of the child is given with the 
same want of knowledge or consideration. 

" But in view of these simple experiments in the Scotch j^risons, who can 
doubt that a want of consideration of these principles of diet is the means of 
consigning to the tomb many of our most promising children. An intelligent 
farmer knows how to feed his land, his horses, his cattle and his pigs, but 
not how to feed his children. He knows that fine flour is not good for pigs, 
and he gives them the whole of the grain, or, perhaps, takes out the bran and 
coarser part, which contains food for muscles and brains, and gives them to 
his pigs, while the fine flour, which contains neither food for muscle or brain, 
he gives to his children. He separates, also, the milk, and gives his pigs the 
skim milk and buttermilk, in which are found all the elements for muscle and 
brain, and gives his children the butter, which only heats them and makes 
them inactive, without furnishing a particle of the nutriment which they need." 

Milk and cheese are doubtless the cheapest forms of animal food that can 
be had in our markets. They deserve to be more extensively used, and it is 
very likely they would enter more largely into consumption were it not from 
mistaken notions of economy, which exclude them from the table on the sup- 
position that they are costly luxuries rather than healthful and nutritious 
articles of food. 



16 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Our country is vast, and of great diversity in soil and climate. New 
England and the Middle States have long since ceased to be regarded as 
the most favorable sections in which men of moderate means may engage 
in grain farming. There is a tide of emigration sweeping westward; 
there is another tide ebbing to the cities, and so the rural population in these 
States is constantly decreasing. We live in an age of intense competitive 
industry ; our people are impatient for gain ; and with a natural fondness for 
adventure, and an eagerness for any change that holds out prospect of better- 
ment, it is not strange that old landmarks are dying out among the farming 
population of the North Atlantic States. I shall not stop now to discuss all 
the causes which have led to this condition of things. It will suffice for the 
present to name one, 

THE MISDIEECTIOTS" OF THE USB OF LAND, 

by failing to adopt the kind of farming suited to the peculiarities of soil and 
climate. With a favorable climate, and the proper expenditure of money, by 
the aid of science you may force an unpropitious soil to yield amj^le returns 
in crops to which originally it was not well adapted. But temperature, 
moisture and climatic influence are in a measure beyond our control. 
Hence, with many disadvantages facing us at every step, we cannot compete 
successfully in growing grain with those sections which have none of these to 
contend with, but have everything in their favor. If we propose to grow 
corn and make it a specialty, the rugged lands of New York and New Eng- 
land will not present equal advantages with the fertile bottom and prairie 
soils of the West. From the natural fertility of these soils, and from the ease 
with which they may be cultivated, the Western farmer can put his surplus 
grain in our markets at a price which compels us to sell at meager profits. 
If we grow grain, therefore, it must be as an adjunct to some specialty, 
which gives us decided advantages over other sections. The dairy is one oi 
those branches from which the great bulk of lands in the United States bj 
natural causes is excluded. To the farmer, then, whose lands are adapted 
to dairying, it presents one of the most remunerative branches of agriculture 
in which he can engage ; and it may well be a question whether the older 
States, lying within the dairy belt we have named, and especially those of] 
New England, with their established institutions and nearness to the bes 
markets in the world, may not now present inducements to the agriculturist^! 
through the channels of dairying second to no other sections in the Union. 

THE PEOGEESS AND PEESENT MAGNITUDE OF THE DAIET INTEEBST OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

will be shown from the figures in the following tables, made up from official 
sources, some of which have been printed in the Patent Office reports, and 
reports of the Department of Agriculture : 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



17 



The following statement shows the number of Milch Cows, for the years 1840 1850 and 
1860, and their rehitions to the total popnlatiou for each period : ' 



States and Tebkitokies. 



1840. 



Ratio. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Hampshire . . . 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina 

Oliio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

District of Columbia 

Dakota 

Nebraska 

New Mexico 

Utah 

Washington 

Nevada 

Total 



189,043 

40,981 

4,280 

74,395 

17,189 

47,395 

376,557 

157,140 

212,618 

9,485 

210,554 
74,006 

120,430 
75,203 

110,655 
55,189 

127,731 
136,632 
88,218 
97,060 
752,966 
188,355 
486,229 

431,668 

15,236 

184,263 

223,887 

151,814 

285,153 

6,808 

874 



4,837,043 



.32 

.42 
.05 
.24 
.22 
.87 
.40 
.33 
.31 
.22 

.27 
.21 
.24 
.16 
.15 
.26 

.34 
.33 
.81 
.26 
.31 
.25 
.32 

.25 
.14 
.31 

.27 

.52 
.23 
.22 
.02 



.28 



1850. 



227,791 

93,151 

4,280 

85,461 

19,248 

72,876 

334,223 

294,671 

284,554 

45,704 

247,475 
105,576 
133,556 

86,856 
130,099 

99,676 

607 

214,331 

230,169 

94,277 
118,736 
931,324 
231,799 
544,499 
9,427 
530,224 

18,698 
193,244 
250.456 
217,811 
146,128 
817,619 

64,339 
813 



10,635 
4,861 



Ratio. 



1860. 



6,385,094 



.30 
.45 
.05 
.23 
.21 
.83 
.37 
.35 
.29 
.24 

.25 
.20 
.23 
.15 
.13 
.25 
.10 
.35 
.34 
.30 
.24 
.30 
.25 
.28 
.71 
.23 
.13 
.29 
.35 
1.03 
.47 
.23 
.31 
.03 



.17 
.43 



-37 



330,537 
171,003 
305,407 

98,877 

33,595 

93,974 
399,688 
533,634 
363,553 
189,803 

28,550 
269,215 
139,663 
147,314 

99,463 
144,493 
179,543 

40,344 
207,646 
345,243 

94,880 

138,818 

1,123,634 

228,633 

676,585 

53,170 
673,547 

19,700 

163,938 

349,514 

601,540 

174,667 

330,713 

303,001 

639 

386 

6,995 

34,369 

11,967 

9,660 

947 



Ratio. 



.34 
.86 
.65 
.31 
.20 
.66 
.28 
.31 
.36 
.28 
.25 
.23 
.18 
.23 
.14 
.12 
.27 
.23 
.26 
.29 
.29 
.21 
.29 
.23 
.30 
1.01 
.23 
.11 
.23 
.23 
.99 
.54 
.31 
.25 
.01 
.11 
.25 
.43 
.33 
.90 



8,581,735 



.28 



ARE THE FIGURES CORRECT.'' 

In absence of the last official census I'eport, not yet printed for distri- 
bution, we take the statistics of 1870 from abstract of census returns of 1869, 
as given in the Tribune Almanac, and which purports to be a correct copy of 
the official returns. It must be evident, however, that the butter and cheese 
products are here put very much below the actual make, for it will be 
observed that the amounts are but little in excess of those made in 1860. 
Now it is well known that the increase in Dairy Farming since 1860 has 
been very large, and has been carried into neAV districts, while the increase of 
more than two millions two hundred and eighty thousand cows must plainly 
2 



18 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



indicate a larger increase in dairy products than is here represented. In 
the last of the two subjoined tables the statistics are given in such form that 
the whole may be readily understood and compared. 

The following table shows the number of Milch Cows, and the quantity of Butter and 
Clieese, made in the United States, in the vear 1869, according to the census of 
. 1870: 



States. 



Milch Cows. Pounds of Cheese. Pounds Butteb. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Califoi'nia 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana , 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts , 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Nevada and Territories 

Total 



270,537 


15,923 


190,500 


16,810 


1,330,800 


1,343,689 


99,350 


3,898,411 


24,198 


6,579 


99,108 


5,280 


301,180 


15,578 


850,340 


1,848,557 


390,450 


605,795 


201,740 


918,635 


41,310 


29,045 


280,191 


190,400 


148,320 


6,153 


190,110 


1,799,862 


100,030 


8,342 


160,220 


5,294,090 


198,580 


1,641,897 


60,740 


199,314 


300,101 


4,427 


390,120 


259,633 




24,342 


99,540 


2,323,092 


149,450 


182,172 


1,980,300 


48,548,289 


301,102 


51,119 


960,322 


21,618,893 


79,312 


105,379 


873,212 


2.508,556 


23,180 


181,511 


171,480 


1,543 


260,190 


135,575 


640,302 


275,128 


190,420 


8,215,030 


401,860 


280,852 




Included in Va. 


250,312 


1,104,300 




10,500,000 


11,008,925 


114.154,211 



6,028,478 
4,067,556 
3,095,035 
7,620,912 
1,430,502 
408,855 
5,439,765 

28,052,551 

18,306,651 

11,953,666 
1,093,497 

11,716,609 
1,444,742 

11,687,781 
5,265,295 
8,297,936 

15,503,482 
2,957,673 
5,006,610 

12,704,837 

604,541 

6,956,764 

10,714,447 

103,097,280 

4,735,495 

48,543,163 
1,000,157 

58,653,511 
1,021,767 
3,177,934 

10,017,787 
5,850,583 

15,900,359 

13,464,723 
Included in Va. 

13,611,328 

11,100.000 



470,536,468 



The following table gives the number of Milch Cows, and the quantity of Butter and 
Cheese, manufactured during each of the years ending the successive decades ac- 
cording to the United States census reports of 1840, 1850, 1860 and 1870: ' 



Milch Cows. 



Value of Daiet Products. 



1840. 



4,837,043 



$33,787,008 



Milch Cows. 



Pounds Butter. | Pounds Cheese. 



1850. 
1860. 
1870. 



6,385,094 

8,581,735 

11 008,925 



313,345,306 
459,681,372 
470.536,468 



105,535,893 
103,663,927 
114,154,211 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



19 



Table showing the number of Milch Cows, quantity of BuUer made and amount of 
Cheese and Milk sold in the State of New York, according to Census of 1865 : 



Counties. 



Milch 
1864, I 



Cows. 
1S65. 



Albany 

Allegany. . . . 

Broome 

Cattaraugus. . 

Cayuga 

Chautauqua. . 
Chemung.. . . 
Chenango.... 

Clinton 

Columbia. . . . 

Cortland 

Delaware. ... 
Dutchess. ... 

Erie 

Essex 

Franklin 

Fulton 

Genesee 

Greene 

Hamilton. ... 
Herkimer ... 

Jefferson , 

Kings 

Lewis 

Livingston.. . , 

Madison 

Monroe 

Montgomer_v. 
New York. . , 

Niagara 

Oneida , 

Onondaga. .. , 

Ontario 

Orange .-. 

Orleans 

Oswego 

Otsego 

Putnam 

Queens 

Rensselaer. . . 
Richmond. . . 

Rockland 

St. Lawrence., 

Saratoga 

Schenectady . 

Schoharie 

Schujder 

Seneca 

Stuben 

Suffolk 

Sullivan 

Tioga 

Tompkins. . . . 

Ulster 

Warren 

Washington. . 

Wayne 

Westchester. . 

Wyoming 

Yates 



11,080 
20,798 
22,178 
34,208 
21,291 
42,703 
10,889 
46,734 
12 603 
12,266 
29,295 
45,217 
20,114 
34,441 

9,004 
15,847 
10,234 

9,193 
13,350 

1,082 
46,627 
56,551 

4,023 
30,848 
10,880 
29,093 
15,058 
20,269 
79 
11,793 
60,648 
24,861 
13,634 
40,021 

7,136 
29,503 
41,226 

8,336 

7,628 
15,405 

1,195 

3,610 
65,262 
15.148 

5,374 
19,461 

7,320 

6,496 
24,172 

8,538 
13,487 
14,109 
15,878 
18,561 

6,016 
17,315 
14,256 
16,719 
19,499 

6,919 



10,615 
18,525 
20,696 
30,559 
21,794 
40,008 

9,647 
41,459 
13,968 
11,942 
31,920 
38,525 
20,014 
31,851 

9,219 
15,804 

9,974 

9,009 
12,059 

1,043 
45,461 
55,198 

4,030 
30,639 
10,605 
28,995 
14,962 
19,903 
86 
11,860 
58,417 
23,730 
13,411 
40,096 

7,197 
28,393 
36,040 

8,426 

7,893 
14,302 

1,191 

3,658 
65,286 
14,583 

5,118 
16,506 

6,897 

6,470 
22,785 

9,057 
12,667 
12,672 
14,575 
18,226 

5,874 
16,863 
14,229 
17,154 
18,329 

6,828| 



Pounds of 

BuTTEK Made. 

1864. 



Pounds op 

Cheese Sold. 

1864. 



Gallons of 

Milk Sold. 

1864. 



1,066,196 

1,655,776 

2,291,268 

2,412,223 

2,208,049 

105,205 

105,345 

4,042,336 

946,725 

965,064 

2,683,773 

5,052,295 

1,358,573 

1,558,573 

654,174 

1,226,598 

706,612 

763,082;^ 

1,327,054 

96,174 

953,118 

3,100,234 

16,315 

1,663,950 

1,052,804 

1,569,342 

1,374,890 

1,035,7311^ 



966,286 
2,868,740 
2,149,141 
1,110,592 
2,363,6613^ 

804,209^ 
1,988,0603^ 
2,811,199 

272,924 

424,063^/ 
1,144,726 
23,575 

231,231 
5,417,779 
1,323,024 

514,607 
1,978,640 

737,673 

690,428 
2,261,034 

596,189 
1,195,868 
1,432,650 
1,676,823 
1,547,217 

478,0853^ 
1,817,397 
1,320,004 

525,032 
1,279,761 

642,324 



20,783 

1,325,748 

113,922 

3,635,356 

205,155 

2,105,642 

21,747 

2,552,066 

100,020 

23,447 

2,074,155 

35,519 

11,599 

3,344,734 

96,255 

125,732 

991,002 

80,263 

16,961 

1,855 

13,893,801 

5,348,615 

4,755,643 

101,417 

3,452,682 

69,044 

4,207,006 



52,260 

8,108,540 

1,844,326 

119,357 

132,575 

59,598 

2,383,806 

3,335,144 

1,155 

528,133 

650 

2,922,001 

185,161 

82,064 

143,641 

32,948 

12,331 

291,185 

1,030 

12,316 

49.655 

885,697 

1,060 

71,139 

807,374 

90,591 

186 

1,801,781 

30,084j 



464,885 

250 

41,385 

12,513 

91.511 

73,085 

84,449 

11,653 

6,300 

231,130 

715 

6,046 

8,964,574 

489,206 

970 

1,100 

1,084 

104,623 

2,193 

100 

17,686 

278,237 

444,530 

138,126 

38,233 

13,506 

858,400 

7,885 

12,650 

25,889 

191,698 

262,946 

32,020 

8,835,0523^ 

75 

69,151 

18,279 

2,841,453 

929,131 

556,688 

4,793 

215,884 

119,187 

115,556 

118,094 

4,235 

8,500 

21,894 

22,485 

22,330 

89,928 

604 

81,167 

134,099 

17,485 

21,819 

47,305 

3,928,845 

43,407 

10,551 



Total I 1,195,481] 1,147,251] 84,584,458] 72,195,837] 39,631,5303^ 



20 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



As a basis foi' estimating the probable production, the following table 
will be useful: 

This table shows the total produce of Milk in thirteen States, for the year ending June 30, 
1860, and also the quantity used for food, and the amount manufactured into Butter 
and Cheese for each State : 



States. 



Milch 
Cows. 

NUMBEE. 



Total 
Produce. 
Quarts. 



Used as Food. 



Man'factur'd 
Butter. 
Quarts. 



Manufac- 
tured 
Cheese. 
Quarts. 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts.. . 

lihode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

Pennsylvania. . . 

New Jersey 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Wisconsin 

Virginia 

Total 



147,314 

94,880 

174,667 

144,492 

19,700 

98,877 

1,123,634 

673,547 

138,818 

22,595 

99,463 

203,001 

330,713 



265,165,200 
170,784,000 
309,056,400 
260,085,600 

35,460,000 
177,978,600 
,022,521,400 
,212,384,600 
249,872,400 

40,671,000 
170,033,400 
349,192,800 
595,128,600 



112,013,085 

75,052,328 

81,288,157 

135,555,626 

21,570,272 

63,585,989 

543,030,641 

553,828,525 

109,868,653 

22,763,870 

96,286,486 

174,214,114 

405,561,119 



146 

86 

196 

103 

13 

99 

,288 

648 

139 

17 

73 

170 

188 



097,262 
.959,550 
022,925 
724,200 
,193,128 
,071,856 
,695,987 
,697,450 
,287,811 
,881,275 
,714,130 
638,162 
,463,968 



3,281,701 5,858,334,000 2,394,618,865 3,172,447,704 291,267,431 



7,054,853 

8,772,122 

31,745,318 

20,805,774 

696,600 

15,320,755 

190,794,772 

9,858,625 

715,936 

25,855 

32,784 

4,340,524 

1,103,513 



According to these statistics fifty-four per cent, of the entire produce was 
made into butter. Now, on this basis, if we take one thousand eight hundred 
quarts of milk as the annual product on an average for each cow, and 
eighteen (1 8) quarts as the average quantity of milk required for a pound of 
butter, then the eleven millions and nine thousand cows of 1870 would 
yield, if their milk was all made into butter, one billion one hundred 
million pounds ; and if fifty-four per cent, of this is the actual product of the 
country, as is represented in the table for 1860, then we have the butter 
product of 1870 represented by neai'ly six hundred million pounds. But we 
think it may be safely estimated at more than this. The report of the Amer- 
ican Dairymen's Association for 1870, gives a list of nearly one thousand one 
hundred cheese factories. The list is very incomplete, as it is well known 
that there are a much larger number ; but this list alone, at an average of 
four hundred cows to the factory, would embrace nearly a half million of 
cows. There are a large number of farms scattered over the country, where 
cheese manufacture is carried on at the farm, and if the number of cows so 
employed be added to the number belonging to factories not reported, there 
can be but little doubt but that the whole number employed for cheese dairy- 
ing would be swelled to eight himdred thousand cows. At three hundred 
pounds of cheese to the cow, we should have the product of 1870, amounting 
to two hundred and forty million pounds. 

Now, according to the table for 1860, forty-one per cent, of the milk 
product is consumed directly as food, fifty-four per cent, is made into butter, 
and five per cent, is made into cheese. Therefore we find that, allowing five 
quarts of milk to the pound of cheese, and taking five per cent, of the gross 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 21 

amount of milk, the cheese product of 1870 would amoimt to nearly two 
hundred million pounds, and this too on the basis that ratios are the same in 
1870 as 1860. We may remark here that 

THE ANNUAL AVERAGE PRODUCT OF COWS 

in our estimate, (viz., — three hundred and sixty pounds of cheese per head ; 
or, if the milk is made into butter, one hundred pounds of butter per head,) 
is considered only a fair average annual jDroduct. These estimates of the 
present annual cheese product correspond very nearly with the quantity 
estimated by those who have kept statistics in regard to this branch of 
industry. They put the whole product of cheese made in 1869 at two 
hundred and forty million pounds. If anything more was needed to show 

THE INACURACY OF THE CENSUS RETURNS 

of 1869 as here reported, we might refer to the cheese product of ISTew York 
for that year in the table which is put at forty-eight million five hundred and 
forty-eight thousand two hundred and eighty-nine pounds, when according to 
the New York census returns of 1864 the quantity of cheese made in the 
State that year for sale and exclusive of what was consumed in families of 
farmers amounted to seventy-two million one hundred and ninety-five thou- 
sand three hundred and thirty-seven poimds. Cheese dairying in New York 
since 1864 has been largely increased. 

From the incomplete retui-ns published in the report of the American 
Daiiymen's Association for 1870, we find eight hundred and twenty-five 
factories given, and if each averaged three hundred cows they would make 
a total of two hundred and forty-seven thousand cows. If we estimate four 
hundred pounds of cheese to the cow as the average product, the gross make of 
cheese at these factories would amount to ninety-eight million eight hundred 
thousand pounds. In view of all the facts in my possession, I feel warranted in 
placing the butter product of the United States and Territories during 1870 
at more than six hundred million pounds, and the cheese product at two 
hundred and forty million pounds. The table, on next page, given by Dr. 
LooMis in the Patent Ofiice report of 1861, will be of interest, as showing 

THE PER CENTAGE OP MILK CONSUMPTION, PREVIOUS TO 1861, IN THIRTEEN 

STATES. 

" It is worthy of notice," he says, " that but five States, viz., New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York, use over 
three per cent, of their milk for cheese, and that all south of Pennsylvania 
use less than one per cent. Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Maryland 
produce the least in proportion to their population ; Vermont, New Hamp- 
shire, New York and Wisconsin produce the most in proportion to their 
population. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and 
Maryland, consume the least in proportion to their population. Virginia 
consumes as food nearly seventy per cent, of the entire milk product of that 
State ; Rhode Island over sixty per cent., and Maryland, Delaware, Massa- 



22 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



chusetts and Wisconsin over fifty per cent, of the product of the States 
severally. New York and Vermont manufacture into butter nearly two- 
thirds of their entire milk product. But one State, Virginia, uses less than 
one-third of its milk in the manufacture of butter. Rhode Island uses the 
largest per centage in the manufacture of cheese ; New York the largest per 
centage in butter ; and Virginia the largest per centage as food. Virginia 
uses the smallest per centage in butter and cheese, and Vermont the least 
per centage as food. 

This table shows the per centage of Milk consumed as food, and manufactured into Butter 
and Cheese. Also, the average produce in quarts to each person, and the average 
amount each consumed : 



States. 



Maine 

New Hampsiiire. 

Vermont 

Massachusetts. . . 
Rhode Island . . . 

Connecticut 

New York 

Pennsylvania . . . 

New Jersey 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Wisconsin 

Virginia 



Consumed. 
Pek Cent. 



BUTTEK. 

Pek Cent. 



42 


.55 


44 


.50 


26 


.63 


52 


.40 


61 


.37 


35 


.56 


27 


.64 


46 


.53 


44 


.55-1- 


56— 


.44— 


57— 


.43— 


50 


.48 


68-1- 


.31-1- 



Manufac- 

TUBED 

Cheese. 
Pek Cent. 



.03 

.06 

.11 

.08 

.02 

.09 

.09 

.01 

.01- 

.01- 

.01- 

.02 

.01- 



Average 

Produce to 

Each Person. 

Quarts. 



Average 
Consumed 
BY Each 

Person. 

Quarts. 



422 
524 
980 
211 
203 
287 
520 
417 
372 
362 
247 
463 
373 



177 
230 
255 
110 
124 
135 
140 
193 
163 
203 
141 
232 
254 



" The average amount consumed daily by each individual, taking the 
whole thirteen States, is one pint. The greatest average daily consumed by 
each person is 1.6 pint in Vermont and Virginia. The least average daily 
consumed by each person is 0.6 of a pint in Massachusetts. 

Dr. LooMis gives the following table, showing the quantity of Milk received in the city 
of New York, at the depots of the Erie, Harlem and Long Island Railroad compa- 
nies, for the year ending June 30, 1861 : 



Months. 



Harlem K. R. 

Quarts. 



Erie E. E. 
Quarts. 



Long Island 
E. E. 

Quarts. 



Total. 
Quarts. 



July 

August 

September. , 

October 

November. , 
December . , 

January 

February. . , 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Total 



2,816,720 
2,657,150 
2,399,410 
2,320,610 
2,057,570 
2,068,320 
2,061,730 
1,853,080 
2,169,590 
2,203,010 
2,436,800 
2.463,090 



2,743,750 
2,636,880 
2,225,800 
1,959,740 
1,715,128 
1,564,670 
1,547,630 
1,474,150 
1,788,910 
1,944,770 
2,320,670 
2,492,510 



282,530 
286,250 
265,190 
269,890 
267,890 
262,660 
260,010 
266,740 
275,840 
286,180 
301,900 
301,650 



27,507,080 



24,414.608 3.326,730 



5,843.000 
5,580,280 
4,890,400 
4,550,240 
4,040,588 
3,895,650 
3,869,370 
3,593,970 
4,234,340 
4,433,960 
5,059,370 
5,257,250 

55,248,418 



In 1861 thirty thousand six hmidred and ninety-four cows were required 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 



23 



to supply the milk transported to New York city on the Harlem, Erie 
and Long Island Kailroads. The average annual cost of transport was five 
hundred and fifty-two thousand four hundred and eighty-four dollars, and 
the cost of milk as received for transportation was one million one hundred 
and four thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight dollars annually. We have 
no statistics at hand to show the quantity of milk used in New York city 
for the year 1870, but the quantity and its cost must be very much greater 
than in 1861. 

VALUE OF THE MILK CROP IN 1860. 

Dr. LooMis says : — " The value cf the milk crop may be very fairly 
estimated from the value of milk used in the manufacture of butter. Fifty- 
four per cent, of the entire crop in the thirteen States before named is made 
into butter ; hence, the value of butter forms a very correct basis for ascer- 
taining the true value of milk. In the following table the prices of milk given 
for each State has been derived by taking the average prices given for the 
cost value of butter at the places where it is made, and extended over a 
period of twelve years. 

The localities were selected from various sections of each State. This 
method was pursued with all the States except Wisconsin, which extended 
over a period of only three years. 

He adds : — " I am aware that these values, with the exception of Dela- 
ware, fall below the generally estimated value of milk, yet I am confident 
that if there is any variation from the true value, it is that I have over-esti- 
mated them." 

The value of milk in the United States in 1860, or befoi'e the war, he 
thought would average less than one cent and five mills per quart. 

He says : — " The following table is a correct statement of the value of 
milk per quart ; the total value of the crop ; together with the value of the 
amount consumed in each of the named States : 



States. 



Pbicb per Quart 
Cents. 



Value Consumed. 



Total Value. 



Maine 

New Hampshire. 

Vermont 

Massachusetts. . . 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

Pennsylvania. . . , 

New jersey 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Wisconsin 

Virginia 



1.36 
1.44 
1.28 
1.68 
1.64 
1.60 
1.36 
1.28 
1.76 
2.00 
1.20 
1.48 
1.13 



$1,523 
1,080 
1,040 

2,277 

353 

1,017 

7,385 

7,089 

1,933 

455 

1,155 

■ 2,578 

4,542 



377 96 
,753 52 
,488 41 
,334 52 
,752 46 
,375 82 
,216 72 
005 12 
,688 29 
277 40 
,437 83 
,368 89 
,284 53 



Total. 



$32,432,361 47 



$3,606,246 72 

2,459,289 60 

3,955,921 92 

4,369,438 08 

518,544 00 

2,847,657 60 

27,506,291 04 

15,518,522 88 

4,396,754 24 

813,420 00 

2,040,400 80 

5,160,053 44 

6,665,440 32 

$79,857,980 64 



With the above tables as a basis, it was estimated that the entire milk 



24 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

crop of the United States for the year 1860, exceeded $160,000,000, or as 

follows : 

Amount consumed as food, $90,000,000 

Amount manufactured into butter, 65,000,000 

Amount manufactured into cheese, 5,000,000 

Total, $160,000,000 

The additional value produced by the manufacture and transportation of 
butter and cheese he estimates will make the value of the crop for the year 
1860, exceed $200,000,000. The estimate is made on the value of milk at 
1.48 cent per quart. At two cents per quart the value of the dairy would be 
upwards of 260,000,000. 

MILK PRODUCT OF 1870. 

Now if we proceed upon the above basis in estimating the entire milk 
crop of 1870, taking its increase of quantity and advanced prices, we shall 
have the following. 

Milk consumed as food, say 40 per cent, of wLole product, at 2 

cents per quart $170,400,000 

600,000,000 pounds of butter, at 30 cents, 180,000,000 

240,000,000 pounds of cheese, at 12 cents, 28,800,000 

Total, $379,200,000 

This is below the estimate made by Commissioner Wells in his Report 
upon the " Industry, Trade and Commerce of the United States," for the 
year 1869. He puts the value of dairy products of the United States at 
$400,000,000 per annum. It will be seen, then, that the diary has become 
an important branch of National Industry. 



DAIRY FARMS AND FIXTURES. 



In Dairy Farming the first thing, natiirally, to be considered is the farm. 
Reference has been made to the importance of a suitable climate as one of 
the requisites to success. Experience and experiment must of course deter- 
mine what our several localities are best adapted to ; but it is certain that 
much of the land in this Northern belt is well adapted for making butter and 
cheese. Its climate is comparatively cool, and that is a matter of great mo- 
ment in securing dairy products of fine flavor and quality. With its showers 
and dews, pure water and fresh sweet feed, it answers the description of a 
good dairy country, which the warmer and drier Southern and Western lati- 
tudes do not. I am satisfied there is no branch of farming in this Northern 
belt that will sufl'er less from outside competition than dairying, and hence, 
where locality favors it nothing in the long run will pay better. 

PERMANENT PASTURES. 

But climate may be favorable and locality unfavorable for the dairy. We 
must consider whether the lands are naturally adapted to grass, or that pas- 
tures at least may be made enduring, and that the farm is well provided with 
an abundance of pure water. 

These two points are very essential to success. I refer to pastures, in dis- 
tinction from meadows, because a rotation of crops may be adopted on arable 
land, so that sufiicient hay may be produced, where the natural condition of 
the soil would not continue to be productive of grass from year to year, 
during long periods. But pastures should be of a character to be made 
enduring, for a variety of reasons which I shall presently notice. 

SIZE OF HEEDS. 

The question is often asked, how large a number of cows can be kept 
profitably in one herd ? or, rather, what is the limit to the number that will 
yield the best average returns as a dairy ? I have taken some pains to get 
the opinion of practical dairymen, both in this country and in Europe, on this 
question ; and it seems to be the universal expression of those who have 
given the matter attention, that, in their experience, sixty cows are about the 
limit, or maximum number. If we take pains to look up the largest average 
yield of dairies in the country, we shall find, almost invariably, that they are 
among the small herds numbering from twenty to forty cows. 



26 Practical Daiby Husbandry. 

Very large herds become unwieldy. They are more subject to disease, and 
a larger number of accidents in proportion, than smaller herds. In driving 
to and fro in the pasture, there is more excitement or worry, which operates 
to lessen the average quantity of milk. There is also a greater proportion of 
farrow, or abortive stock in such herds, hence in New York, dairymen who 
have large farms, prefer to divide them up, making their dairies number from 
thirty to fifty cows each. ■ 

DIVIDING HERDS. 

I found this condition of things prevailing in the dairy districts of Eng- 
land and Scotland, and I therefore conclude that herds having a larger num- 
ber than sixty cows are not to be generally recommended. If it is desired, 
however, to keep a larger number, I should advise that the cows be pastured 
in separate herds of say thirty each, and that they be milked and wintered in 
separate stables, allowing no communication among the several branches. 

In some instances, I have seen dairies of a hundred cows, divided up into 
two herds of fifty each, and good results were obtained. The herds were 
milked and wintered in one barn, but in stables opposite or adjoining each 
other, and so arranged that the cows of the different herds could have no 
communication with each other whatever. 

This fact in relation to the size of herds it is important to understand ; 
since large losses have been made by persons who have tried the herding of 
a large number of animals together for dairy purposes. 

TElSrCING. 

There is another point of considerable economy in the management of 
dairy farms, often overlooked even by old and experienced dairymen, and this 
is in regard to fences. In New York it is daily becoming a problem of 
increasing interest where we are to obtain our fences. All sorts of hedges 
are recommended, but who has ever seen a good one in New England or New 
York ! — one that will stand the test of every day practical utility in turning 
stock ? In England they are easily enough produced, and so are pastures. 
A humid atmosphere, frequent showers, frosts so light as not to injure grass 
in winter or even render it unfit for the sustenance of sheep ordinarily, even 
in mid-winter. Absence of our fervid heats of summer, and during summer 
many more hours of daylight render any comparison between that country and 
cur own in the way of growing hedges, of doubtful character. But few per- 
sons, I imagine, have even sat down to fairly estimate 

THE EXPENSE OF FENCING THE FARMS OF A STATE. 

It has been vaguely estimated that 140,000,000 would not fence the farms 
of New York. But to fence one hundred acres of land with only four lots 
require nearly eight hundred rods of fence, which, at $1.50 per rod, would 
cost $1,200. Now deduct one-third of this for the fencing of the contiguous 
farms, and we have |800 per hundred acres for the cost of board fences. A 
town— after rejecting poor land— of say one hundred such farms, would cost 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 27 

$30,000, and a county of twenty such towns the enormous sum of at least 
$1,500,000. Multiply that by the number of counties in a State and see what 
an immense sum we arrive at. The corollory is a safe one that the fences of 
IsTew York cost more than the Erie Canal or the Central Railroad. At least 
one-third of these fences are of no earthly use, but on the contrary, it can be 
proved, are a serious damage. 

Upon dairy forms, therefore where it is practicable, the farm should have 
but one line of interior fence. Immense sums are thrown away by the farm- 
ers of the country in 

USELESS SMALL ENCLOSURES, 

It is not necessary to go into the exact details of cost in erecting a substan- 
tial fence, dividing a farm into ten acre lots. This in the outset is a heavy 
outlay of capital and labor, but the burthen of repairing must be carried 
from year to year. Division lines between farms should always be marked 
with good substantial barriers. Where stone are plenty upon the farm, they 
are perhaps well employed in division or line fences, but it is hardly advisable 
to use them for interior barriers, especially such as may require to be removed 
from time to time. 

In early times when timber was plenty, and forests to be cleared, the 
expense of fencing a farm was of not so much account as now. Then a 
selection of timber could be made and a thousand rails split, with but a trifle 
more labor than a quarter that number from the cullings of the present wood 
lot of the farm. Timber among the early settlers was considered of very 
little value. Now it is costly, and the farmer who has much fence to build 
must study economy in material as well as in labor, and even under the best 
management he finds the expense burthensome. The division of a dairy 
farm into numerous small enclosures, I regard as poor economy, and in many 
ways objectionable. 

The generality of fences upon American farms, to say the least, are 
unsightly. Besides the first expense and labor of keeping them in repair, 
they occupy too much land, and are a harbor for weeds and bushes, and 
briars ; all of which must be put down as serious objections. 

I know there are men who claim great advantages for small enclosures, 
and who regard five, eight, or ten aci-e lots as almost indispensable in their 
farming operations. I do not propose to argue points with them, but simply 
suggest that the cost of fencing such enclosures for ten years be figured, and 
compared with the advantages claimed. In most instances, I think, the 
balance sheet will be a strong argument against the fences. Of course some 
small enclosures may be necessary, such as that for the vegetable garden, the 
orchard, &c. I do not object to these, but to the extending of them over 
the whole farm. Upon half the farms in the old States, it would pay the 
occupants to 

EMPLOY AN EXPERIENCED ENGINEER, 

to make a careful survey of the farm and establish the location of fences. 
Let the farmer make a plain statement of the character of farming he is 



28 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

about to follow, his actual necessities upon the farm, requiring of the fence 
engineer a reduction of the fences to the lowest possible point. I am very 
certain that the fences on most farms may be so arranged as to afford ample 
convenience, and yet be largely reduced as to length. The necessity of 
building strong and high fences along the road-side is not so imperative now 
as formerly. There is a law in many of the States against cattle running at 
large in the highways, which ought to be enacted in all the States and put in 
force in every neighborhood. 

THE LOG AKD EAIL FENCES 

of the early settlers, have both had their day. Neither is to be recommended, 
except perhaps in heavily wooded regions, where timber is of little value. l| 
In old districts they must soon pass away, since timber is becoming scarce 
and land is too valuable to be wasted by this character of barrier. They are 
very objectionable in plowing, and even upon dairy farms when such a fence 
divides pasture and meadow, considerable more expense is required to do 
the mowing, as the machine cannot run into the corners, which must be 
trimmed by hand. Besides, as was remarked at the outset, they are a harbor 
for weeds and bushes, since they are more liable to be left uncut, than when 
the fences are straight, and there are no corners to prevent obstructions, as 
the woi'k goes on. It should be remembered that we do not fence against 
the strength of cattle ; for if our animals Avere so inclined, they would break 
down nearly all the wooden fences which we build. What Ave seek in the 
construction of interior farm fences, is to build a barrier that Avill appear 
formidable to cattle, of sufficient strength to resist ordinary storms of wind, 
and the occasional contact from cattle rubbing against it. It should be so 
high that cattle cannot reach over it, so compact that they cannot get their 
heads through it, and so near the ground that they cannot get under it. 

MOVEABLE PANELS. 

For surrounding patches of land that require breaking up and cultivating, 
and to be returned again to grass an effectual barrier can be erected at much 
less expense for labor and material than the heavy post and board fence 
commonly recommended. There are various forms of moveable panels, 
easily erected and taken down and removed from place to place, which are 
of great practical utility and economy upon dairy farms. Some of our New 
York dairy farmers find the picket fence the most formidable barrier to 
cattle, of all the kinds of wooden fence in use. 

A LIGHT FENCE 

of this description, and which has been found to be an ample protection 
against stock, for patches of grain, vegetables, &c., recommended by Mr. S. S. 
Whiteman of Herkimer, is constructed as folloAvs : — The pickets are four feet 
long, two inches wide and five-eights of an inch thick. They are nailed three 
inches apart on the rails, or seventeen pickets to the rod. The rails are ten 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 29 

feet long, two inches wide and one and a half inches thick, three rails to a 
panel ; that is — a rail at top and bottom, and the third rail running 
diagonally between the other two in the form of a brace. In making these 
panels a frame or skeleton form is constructed arranged with wooden pins, 
so as to se-jDarate the various pieces the desired distance apart. 

The top and bottom rails are then dropped into their apj)ropriate places, 
the pickets arranged between the pins, where they are rapidly nailed with 
five-penny nails. After the skeleton frame is once constructed, these panels 
may be speedily made. The pickets do not cover the ends of the rails, a 
space being left for lapping the panels together, when they are to be set up 
in the fence. The method of putting the fence up is to let the rails of one 
section overlap the rails of the other at the point where they are joined 
together ; the sections being suj^ported at the right height from the ground 
by a stone or block. Then a stake about the size of a common hand spike, is 
driven down on each side of the lapping sections, and supporting block, and 
the top of the stakes fastened together with wire. These panels can be 
easily loaded on a wagon rack and removed from place to place as needed. 

DIGGING POST HOLES. 

Line fences and that separating the pasture and madow may be of a more 
permanent character. When posts are to be set, the holes can be dug 
expeditiously after the following method : — First, strike a line and mark off 
the distances between the posts, sticking small stakes about four inches from 
the line. Then make the center of the hole opposite the stakes. The digger 
stands faceing the line of fence, making the hole the width of the spade at 
the line, and slanting towards him as he digs, while all the other sides are 
perpendicular. This slant enables the digger to lower the handle of his spade 
and bring up a full spadeful, enabling him to do the work easily and 
expeditiously. 

BOAKD FENCE. 

There are various ways of making board fence. When boards sixteen 
feet long are used, they may be six inches wide and one inch thick. The 
posts then should be set seven and a-half feet apart. Fasten the boards at 
each end with a seven inch spike and a two and a half inch slat, resting the 
boards on the spikes. The lap on each end of the boards should be six inches. 

At the middle post, as there is no lap, a six inch spike may be used. If 
the boards used are but thirteen feet long, they should be one and a-fourth 
inches thick, and the middle post may be omitted. By ushig slats, and 
allowing the boards to rest on spikes, rather than driving them through the 
boards, they are less liable to decay, while the panels may be easily 
removed as occasion may require. The question of 

ECONOMY IN" FENCING 

does not receive the attention which it deserves among farmers. The cost 
of fencing farms, and their repair year after year is enormous. It would be 
well if we could look forward to something more tasteful than the rail 



30 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

structures, which disfigure the country at every hand. We must get in the 
way of doing work ii. a more economical way. As we grow older as a 
nation, structures, whether they be in buildings or fences, must inevitably be 
improved. It would be better that we begin at once since much money^ 
would in the end be saved. I 

CHANGE OF PASTURES. ■ 

I have endeavored to show the importence of economy in the matter of 
fencing, and it may be well perhaps in this connection to name some of the 
practicle results of the plan recommended. The practice which obtains with 
some of dividing the pasturage into separate fields, and changing the herd 
every week or two from field to field is now generally disapproved of by our 
best dairymen. 

Cows confined to one field are more quiet and contented. They will 
usually go over in the course of the day every portion of the field, selecting 
their food, and when filled they lie down to rest, and manufacture grass into 
milk. All extra labor, excitement and gluttinous feeding from an over 
stimulated appetite lessens the quantity of milk. Everything about the 
" every day pasture '' is familiar, and if food is abundant, they have no 
thought beyond leisurely taking their meals, and reclining at ease on some 
favorite spot, ruminating or dozing over their " knitting work " as it has 
been aptly termed— no shadow of discontent clouding their peaceful and 
seemingly happy existance. 

But let a bite of grass in new fields be had and all this is changed. They 
over-feed, and in consequence their health is more or less deranged ; they 
tramp around in every nook and corner of the field in search of dainties- 
become restless and discontented, and not unfrequently some of the more 
active and enterprising members of the herd, try fences and make excursions 
mto fields of grain and prohibited crops. I have seen herds with one or two 
unruly disposed members, though perfectly quiet and orderly while confined 
to one pasture, become so restless and discontented from a change to new 
fields, as to be exceedingly troublesome and cause serious losses. 

There are other reasons. The pastures will not be so uniformly cropped ; 
large portions will get a rank growth, be rejected by stock, and therefore 
afl^ord less nutritious food through the season, than when used as one 
pasture. 

FKESH PASTURES PRODUCE SCOURS. 

Fresh pastures are more apt to produce scours, as is well known 
derangn)g the appetite and health to a greater extent than when confined to 
one field. The argument generally used in favor of two pastures, is that the 
daily trampmg of the cattle on the one pasture renders, the food less fresh' 
and palatable, and that the alternate pastures obviate this, giving time for 
grass to grow, thus producing more food and better results. The conclusion 
arrived at, is not true in fact. Stock when turned into a new pasture do not 
rest till they have roamed over and examined every part of it, and will tramp 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 31 

down, soil, and destroy more food than if the same land was in one pastm-e, 
thereby really affording or rendering available to the herd, a less amount oi 
nutritious food during the season. Cattle, it is true, like 

A CHANGE OF FOOD, 

but this change should exist in the varieties of grass in the same pasture, and 
not in different . fields. Of course the aftermath and gleanings from grain 
fields are to be consumed by stock in fall, as deemed expedient, but the sum- 
mer pasture should be one field, as productive of more milk with less trouble, 
expense and loss. 

PASTURES SHOULD NOT BE OYBRSTOCKED. 

Pastures, it is proper to say, should not be overstocked — the supply of food 
must be abundant, otherwise serious losses will be incurred. There is nothing 
gained by stocking clear up to, or a little beyond, the full capacity of the land, 
and trusting to an extraordinary good growing season to bring the animals 
through. 

Much milk will require a proportionate amount of food, and I have yet to 
see the cow miserly kept on scanty fare, that can turn that fare into a large 
dairy product. The rule should be, the largest quantity and best quality of 
dairy products per cow, and not the largest number of cows without thought 
or care as to the respective quantity or quality of milk from each. 

DAIRY BARNS. 

An important requisite in Dairy farming is to have a convenient barn. 
Indeed, of so much practical importance is this, that I must treat the subject 
at considerable length. A handy barn for a grain farm is a very different 
structure from what is needed on a dairy farm. Dairymen of experience 
affirm that a convenient dairy barn on a farm carrying fifty cows, will save an 
annual expense in labor of at least |200 over the structures in use twenty 
years ago, and, indeed, over those Avhich are largely in use at the present day. 

THE MODERN DAIRY BARN 

began to be erected in the old dairy districts of New York about ten years 
ago, and it is a matter of surprise that a people who have been sixty years 
engaged in dairying as a specialty, should have neglected this branch of their ' 
art so long. 

The modern dairy barn is roomy, and arranged, if possible, so that one 
building or a structure under one roof, will meet all the wants of the farm. 
This is easily done, when a side hill and running water are convenient to the 
farm house. In such cases the stables for milking are those in which the 
cows are kept in winter. This arrangement saves the cost of a special 
building, or " milk barn " as it is termed. 

The stables should not only be well lighted, but arranged with wide drop 
doors at the sides, so that for summer use you can expose a skeleton or section 
of the frame, admitting into the stable a flood of light and pure air. 



32 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

manure cellars. 

There has been great difference of oj)inion whether manure cellars under 
the stable are injurious or otherwise. 

Many barns in Central New York are constructed with the cellars unde: 
the stables, and in no instance where they have been properly ventilated, an 
absorbents used for taking up the liquid manure, have I heard of an 
bad effect on account of the manures, &c. The stock is quite as healthy, 
and appears as thrifty at all seasons, as in barns without manure cellars. 
I have examined manure cellars under stables, at different seasons of the 
year. Some of them were badly ventilated, and were foul with gases emana- 
ting from the decomposing mass of excrement which had been dumped with- 
out absorbents. Such a condition of things must be a source of disease t 
stock and cannot be recommended. In others, Avhere ventilation has been 
secured, and absorbents, such as muck, dry earth or sawdust freely used, the 
atmosphere was comparatively pure, and free from any disagreeable odor. 
Generally those who have manure cellars under their stables are pleased with 
them. They save a great deal of labor in the course of a year, and, with the 
precautions I have named as regards ventilation and absorbents, have not 
been found to be objectionable, 

A CONVENIENT DAIRY BARN. 

I shall describe somewhat minutely what has been found to be a conven- 
ient dairy barn having capacity for fifty cows. It has a basement or manure 
cellar under the stables. The barn stands on the edge of a knoll or side hill, 
and is one hundred feet long by forty feet wide, and has a stone basement 
nine feet high. The bottom of this basement, which is used for manures, is 
paved with cobble stones, pounded down in the earth, and then cemented 
with water lime and sand, in the proportion of one part lime to aine parts 
sand. This forms a perfectly tight bottom and is the receptacle for all liquid 
and solid excrement from stock in the stables above. 

The basement is well lighted and ventilated, and teams can be driven 
through the central alley for removing manures. Muck and dry earth are 
hauled into the central alley, during odd spells in summer, to be used from 
time to time as absorbents, and when thus mingled with the liquid and solid 
excrement a large quantity of fertilizing material is made. 

THE STABLES 

are on the sides of the building, immediately above the basement, and are 
eleven feet wide back of the feed box, and the cows are fed from the central 
alley, which is fourteen feet wide. The cows stand four feet apart, or rather 
they occupy that space, and are fastened with double chains two feet long, 
attached to a ring sliding on a post. Between each cow there is a plank 
partition extending into the central alley, the width of the feed box, and back 
intS the stable some two feet. This plan gives the cow more liberty and ease 
of position than stanchions, and some prefer these fastenings to stanchions on 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 33 

this account. Back of the cows and along the outside of the stables, the 
floor is raised some five inches higher than the drop where the cows stand, 
and there is an open space between the two floors Avhere the manures are 
pushed into the cellar below. This it will be seen can be done very rapidly. 
(Some use a trap.) The stables are well lighted and ventilated. Above 
the cows are 

THE DRIVE FLOORS AND BATS 

where the teams deposit the hay and fodder. The loads come in at one end 
and go out at the side on the other end, so that several teams can be in the 
barn and the work of loading and unloading go on at the same time, and not 
interfere with each other. On one side of the barn are the 

HORSE STABLES AND CARRIAGE HOUSE, 

communicating with the upper or drive floor, and all arranged in the most 
perfect manner as to granary and the means of dropping hay for feeding 
horses and cattle. 

In the upper loft over the drive way, a flooring is arranged with open 
spaces, where a considerable quantity of corn in the stalk may be stored until 
such time as there is leisure for husking. The leading feature of the barns 
now being buiit in the dairy region is to have the drive floors and bays 
above the stables. When the site is suitable some prefer to have the drive 
way near the peak or top of the barn. The hay may then be rolled from the 
load on either side into the bays. 

In feeding, — the stables being below, — the fodder is thrown downwards, 
either through openings arranged in the bays, or in the central alley, accord- 
ing to the manner in which the cows are placed in the stables. 

A portion of the basement is partitioned off" for roots, which at the time 
of harvesting are dumped through a trap on the feed floor. 

Not far from the southern shores of Oneida Lake, and at the geograi^hical 
center of the State of New York, a peculiar religious sect, numbering about 
two hundi'ed votaries, has established itself upon a few hundred acres of 
choice land. They do almost everything among themselves, and conduct a 
system of mechanical oj)erations and high farming. They have men of science 
and education among them, and their workshops and farming operations are, 
in many respects, models of excellence. 

AK EXCELLENT DAIRY BARN. 

A few years since, they sent their architects through the country to exam- 
ine all the best barns that could be found, and from a large number of plans 
they modeled and erected a dairy barn of the following description : — It is 
one hundred and thirty-five feet long by seventy feet broad, and has a hip 
roof. The structure is of wood, resting on a stone basement nine feet high. 
The basement is divided by walls into spaces for the manures, the root cellar, 
land bottom of the bays. There are three drive ways or barn floors running 



34 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



across the building, with bays thirty feet square on either side of the central 
drive way, so that the teams can deliver their loads from the three floors. 
The stables run all around the outside, except in the spaces taken up by the 
drive way. The stables on the ends hold twenty cows each, and the four 
stables on the sides, between the floors, have nine stalls each, so that seventy- 
six animals can be housed at one time. 

Under the middle drive way is the root cellar, where roots are dumped by 
opening a trap door ; on the other floor are traps for dropping muck, or other 
absorbents into the manure cellar. The drive ways are fourteen feet wide, and 
the width of the stables sixteen feet, including the mangers, which are three 
feet. Back of the cows there is a manure sink two feet wide, and from this 
to the outside of the building is a space of five feet. There are four 

VENTILATORS 

that run from top to bottom so as to give good ventilation. Saw-dust and 




MiEADO^y BROOK K^RM: D^IRY B-A.RlNr-KLK'V^TION". 

cxxi straw are used for bedding stock. Of the straw, about four hundred 
loads are used for the purpose during winter. The hay is cut into chafl", and at 
certain seasons, when cows are in milk, it is mingled with meal or bran before 
being fed. When bran is used the coavs get each about four quarts per day. 
The root cellar holds about four thousand bushels, and the roots are fed 
during winter. It is the only barn I have seen arranged on this plan. The 
bays for hay extending into the basement seems to me to be objectionable. 
The arrangement for storing both hay and grain, and the feeding of stock, 
appear to be convenient. 

MEADOW BROOK FARM DAIRY BARN. 

By the politeness of Mr. Geo, S. Bowen, of Chicago, 111., I am in re- 
ceipt of the accompanying cuts showing elevation and plan of Dairy Barn 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



35 




LO'WTEB FLOOS. 



erected in 1870 upon his Meadow Brook Farm, near Elgin III, the following 

description being taken from the 

Western Rural : 

" The barn is L-shaped, the main 

being 96x30, the wing 40x36 ; its 

hight from the ground to the 

ridge-pole is forty-two feet. The 

lower floor, as will be seen by the 

accompanying diagram, is devoted 

to stalls, milk-room, water-trough, 

root-cellar, etc. 

" Mr. B. has contrived to secure 

ample and ready ventilation — a 

point which is very often considered 

too lightly in the construction of 

buildings of this character. The 

stalls occupy portions of both the 

main part and the wing, and will ac- 
commodate sixty-three cattle, with 

single feed boxes for each, and 

long, hinged supply lines immediately in front. There is a space of seven 

feet from the droB (or receptacle for the droppings) to the windows, which 

are large — their size admitting of 
increased ventilation during hot 
weather, and facilitating the re- 
moval of excremental matter. 

" A wind-mill pitmp is to be sup- 
plied to raise water into a reservoir 
so constructed as to fill the cooling 
vats in the milk-room, and to pro- 
vide water for the stock during 
stormy weather. 

" A protected flight of stairs leads 
from the lower to the upper floor, 
where there is a large room for 
storing farming utensils ; a grain- 
bin, 36x20 ; two bays for hay, one 
76x12 and the other 36x12. The 
entrance floors are seventy-six and 
thirty-six feet, respectively, and 
reached by bridges or causeways 
leading from the ground. There 

are eight large sliding double doors, all moving on rollers, and four hay 

slides to get whatever is needed to the lower floor. Successive flights of 




UPPER FLOOR. 



36 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

stairs communicate with a large cupola. The cost of this barn was three 
thousand six hundred dollars. There were used in its construction one hun 
dred and ten thousand feet of lumber, fifty-five thousand shingles, and twc 
thousand eight hundred pounds of nails." 

ANOTHEE STYLE OF BAEIST 

is used by those who have a prejudice against manure cellars. It is built witi 
or without a basement. The cows stand in two rows opposite each other^ 
with their heads facing the outside of the building, and the space in the center 
between the cows and the drop is wide enough for a drive way for hauling 
out the manures. The cows enter at the central door, and take their place 
on either side. Absorbents may be used for taking up the liquid manures, 
and every day, when trie stables are to be cleaned, it is piled upon a sled or 
wagon and taken directly to a field where it is to be used. 

HOW MANUEES AEE MATSTAGED. 

Haeeis Lewis, Herkimer Co., N. Y., has been quite successful in managing 
the manures from his stock, from a barn of this description. He uses saw-dust 
for absorbing the liquid manures in his stables, at the rate of about sixty 
bushels per week for a stock of fifty cows. The liquid manure thus absorbed 
is hauled from day to day to a meadow lot containing twenty-five acres. It is 
spread as evenly as possible with a shovel or fork, and in the spring it is 
brushed, so as to be completely broken up and distributed in fine particles. 
By underdraining, and the use of this top dressing, he has been able to bring 
a piece of ground containing twenty-five acres, originally of only ordinary 
fertility, to a condition in which the annual yield of hay is sufficient for the 
winter keep of fifty cows. 

THE CONVENIENCE OF MANUEE CELLAES. 

Buildings of this kind, however, are much less convenient than those pro- 
vided with manure cellars, as there are many days in winter when it is stormy, 
and inconvenient and difficult to haul manure from the stables. Besides, if 
they are to be applied upon grounds that are somewhat descending, a consid- 
erable portion of the manure is liable to be washed away as the snow goes oflf 
in the spring. With the cellar, on the contrary, advantage can be taken of 
the time in applying manures, and practically they are found to be productive 
of the best results. 

BAENS FOE CUTTING AND STEAMING FODDEE. 

I have yet another barn to describe, adapted to a level surface, and where 
the straw from considerable quantities of grain is to be cut and steamed for 
cattle food. This barn was erected for Mr. Teuesdale, an extensive dairy 
farmer in Wisconsin, who spared no expense in obtaining the best models and 
architects, and who is said to have the most perfect dairy barn in that State. 
I visited this establishment in 1869, and give a sketch of it from my notes : 

The barn is an immense structure, being in outline the form of a T. The 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 37 

top of the T is one hundred and twelve feet long by forty feet wide, with 
twenty-two feet posts. The whole stands upon a heavy wall, which forms a 
cellar under the building for manures. The part representing the top of the 
T is used for threshing, shelling corn, grinding the grain and cutting the fod- 
der. Immediately to the right, but separated only by a short platform, is 
another building in which all the fodder is cooked by steam. The cattle 
stand in the body of the T, in two long stables at the sides, with their heads 
facing each other, the central alley being sixteen feet wide. The stables are 
nine feet wide, and the platform on which the cows stand is four feet nine 
inches to the stanchions,, leaving a ditch one foot wide and a space of three 
feet back of the ditch to the sides of the building. The stanchions are three 
feet three inches apart from center to center, and the platform on which the 
cows stand is raised so as to give a drojD of nine inches. Of this drop a 
space of five inches is left open, through which the manure is pushed to the 

I cellar below. The stables will accommodate one hundred and forty cows — 
seventy animals on a side. The second story (above the cows) is used for 

( oats, grain unthreshed, and hay, the hay being stored in the lower end, in a 
section by itself, for spring use. 

THE THRESHING 

, is done as the straw and grain are needed for the stock. The threshing 
t machine and straw cutter are in the second story of the top of the T. The 
; grain in bundles or loose, is thrown on a car, which runs on rails through 
I the different sections over the cows, and a load is drawn up to the machine 
i by a simple arrangement operated by power from the engine. The various 
machines are then set in motion, and as the straw is threshed it passes to the 

■ straw cutter, and falls chopped in pieces, to a large bin below. The chaff is 
blown out of the grain and falls into the same bin, while the grain passes on 
and falls into a fan mill below, where it is cleaned, and goes into a bin. 

i Everything is arranged so conveniently, that but little labor or time is em- 
I ployed to do this part of the work, from time to time as needed. 

PREPARING THE FEED. 

The corn sheller and mill for grinding the grain are below with the grain bins 

opposite. Oats and corn are mingled together in the proportion of two-thirds 

of the former to one-third of the latter, when it is carried by machinery above, 

t falls into the hopper, and is ground and passed to its appropriate bin. There 

I are two steam boxes sixteen feet long, five feet wide and five feet deep. They 

■ stand upon cars, with a track leading through the central alley of the stable 
: to the steaming room. These cars are run up to the straw and meal bins, and 
lithe boxes filled. First the straw is filled into the steam box a foot deep, then 

one bushel of the mixture of oats and corn meal is sprinkled on, and so alter- 
mately with straw and meal until the box is filled, which gives four bushels of 

II meal to the box. Then the boxes are run into the steam room and the con- 
tents wet down by pumping water through a hose. 



38 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

At the bottom of the boxes are perforated iron j)ipes running three times 
lengthwise across the bottom, and arranged at one end so as to be locked on 
to the steam pipes connected with the engine. The cover is then fitted to the 
box, and the steam let on. In about half an hour the contents of the box 
are broken down and cooked. 

FEEDING THE COWS. 

The food steamed in the morning is thrown out into the car and left to 
cool till evening, when it is just pleasantly warm to the hand, and is ready for 
feeding. The night's steaming is treated in the same way for the morning 
feed. The cars are run along the central alley, between the heads .of the 
cows, and each animal receives her share in the manger before her. The two 
boxes of steamed food are sviificient for one feed of one hundred and forty 
head of cattle. It will be seen, therefore, that in addition to the straw, the 
one hundred and forty head get sixteen bushels of meal, or about three and 
one-half quarts of meal each per day. The cows are very fond of their 
rations, and under this treatment were looking sleek and in good condition. 

GAIN BY STEAMING FOOD. 

Mr. Truesdale's estimate shows about twenty-five per cent gain in cost of 
feed over the ordinary method where hay is used, to say nothing of the im- 
portant saving made in converting his straw into available manures.. The 
stock is wintered in this manner, and when the cows begin to come in milk, 
he commences feeding hay. The stables, I should have remarked, are well 
lighted, and ample provision is made for ventilation, so that the cows have 
really a luxurious abode in their winter quarters. 

' THE MANURE CELLAR 

is immediately under the cow stables, and is well lighted and ventilated. In 
the fall of the yeai*, or during summer when work is not pressing, muck, 
which has been thrown out of the ditches and dried, is carted into the cellar 
and piled in the central alley as an absorbent. From five hundred to eight 
hundred loads of muck are thus stored annually. The liquid and solid excre- 
ment from the cows goes down into the cellar through the opening in the 
stable floor as I have described, and every day or two the muck from the 
central alley is thrown upon the dung until all moisture is absorbed. 

HOW THE MANURE IS USED. 

Mr. Truesdale's system here is, without doubt, a good one, and the large 
quantities of manure annually made, must in a few years give ample returns 
upon the farm. A portion of this manure is used for top-dressing meadows 
and newly seeded lands, in the fall, at the rate of about twenty loads to the 
acre, evenly spread and brushed down fine, and about fifty acres are annually 
treated in this way. 

Under this arrangement of barns and machinery, two men will take care 
of one hundred and forty head of cattle, steaming the food, cleaning the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 39 

stables, and doing all the work necessary for the care aud comfort of the ani- 
mals. There are two open yards, one on each side of the barn, where the cows 
from each stable are provided with water, which is pumped from a never- 
failing well. These yards are partly planked, and are to be wholly planked 
the coming year. 

BARN" WITH FOUR ROWS OF STABLES. 

An Ohio correspondent of the Rural New-Yorker sends the following 
description of a Dairy Barn : 

Its distinguishing characteristics are a free use of tram-ways, and a separ- 
ate building for the factory operations incident to feeding a large drove of 
cattle, and for the storage of grain and feed. 

The size of the main barn is 96 by 56 feet; of factory, 24 by 20. The 
barn will hold one hundred and twenty cattle, and hogs ad libitum. The 
basement story, or hog and manure cellar, is not shown in the elevation. It 
is divided into pens for hogs, on either side of a central alley. The base- 
ment story of factory contains the steam engine and a continuation of the 
tram-way which passes through the hog cellar. 

The second floor of the barn contains the cattle stables, arranged for four 
rows of cattle, each double row facing a feeding alley in which there is a 
tram-way for the easy conveyance of the cooked food. The second story of 
the factory is for the grist mill, cider mill, saw frame, or any other machinery 
it is desired to use. A belt also runs to a separate shaft in the main barn, for 
turning the hay cutter, threshing machine and corn sheller. 

The third story of the barn contains the barn floor, with large bays on 
either side. Also a room for cutting hay and a bin for the cut feed. A tram- 
way and hay car are provided for the easy handling of the hay and fodder used. 
The corresponding story of the factory is for the reception of grain, and of 
meal from the grist mill below. The necessary spouts and elevators are pro- 
vided, as common in grist mills. In the fourth story of factory is stored the 
bran or mill feed. 

On a level with the purline plates is laid another floor for corn in the ear. 
This floor is also provided with tram-way and car. The stables are provided 
with manure traps, one foot by twelve, running the whole length of the 
stalls, and hung upon hinges. These render the cleaning of the stalls an 
easy task. If more accommodations are required, the length of the barn 
might be increased. One correspondent says : — I believe in this barn, three 
men might take care of one hundred and twenty cattle and five hundred hogs, 
including the running of the engine and the machinery. As to cost, no 
estimate can be made, since lumber and stone or brick vary so much in price 
in difierent localities. Where both are abundant, the cost would not exceed 
four thousand dollars. 

The accompanying plans will, perhaps, the better enable the reader to 
comprehend the arrangement of tlie barn. 

In Fig. 1 is shown the plan of the stables on the second floor, S, S, S, S, 



40 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



stalls for cattle ; M, M, M, M, mangers ; A, A, alleys in front of cattle ; Mt, 
Mt, Mt, manure traps; t, ?, tramways; St, switch track between alleys; 




machinery room is shown at end of elevation. Fig. 2, S, steam engine; 
^, tramway; B, steam box. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



41 



Fig. 3 shows a sectional view of barn and factory. A, first story; B, 
second story ; C, third story of barn ; D, D, hay bays ; E, corn loft ; e, e, 
(dotted line) ground level ; a, first, &, second, c, third, and £?, fourth stories 
of factory. 

PRACTICAL BEAKIjSTG OF MANURE CELLARS. 

I have given some of the leading features esteemed requisite in the con- 




iiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiilliillllllllllllllliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilillllillllllliiiiiiiiiiiiiNiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^^ llliilillilii 



Fig. 1— Second Floor op Stock Barn. 




fVp 



Fig. 3.— Sectionai- View op Barn and Factory. Fig. 2.— Engine Room. 

struction of a convenient dairy barn. Of course the size of building and m- 
ternal arrangements may be modified to suit the wants of particular cases ; 
but I regard the manure cellars underneath the stable of great practical utility, 
I have seen such rapid and large improvement in dairy lands from its adoption, 



42 Pb ACTIO AL Daisy Husbandry. 

that it has commended itself strongly to favor. I know of farms that were 
quite ordinary a few years ago that are now made to carry an extraordinarily 
large stock, and I have repeatedly asked the occupants in what manner they 
h^ve been enabled to produce crops sufficient to supply food for an extra 
number of cows upon the farm (sometimes double the number that are kept 
on adjoining farms of the same size,) and the reply has been that the result 
was accomplished through the manure cellar. Before the manure cellar was 
inaugurated they say :— " Do the best we could, much of the manure went to 
waste. The quantity at most was small compared with what is at present 
turned oif, and yet the labor expended under the old system was vastly greater 
than now. I do not say but there are other methods for producing the same 
results, but they cost more, are less convenient, and from the liability of neg- 
lect are not so likely to prove successful. 

THE DAIRY HOUSE. 

The question is often asked whether under our factory system a dairy 
house is required on the farm. I should advise such a structure, though it 
need not be so expensive and elaborate as is sometimes seen \mder the old 
system of family dairying. The building should be arranged and fitted up 
for both butter and cheese manufacture. The reason for the erection of such 
a structure even in cases where the milk is to be carried to a factory will, from 
a moment's reflection, be obvious. 

In the first place, the factories open and close operations at stated periods, 
and during the time they are not working considerable quantities of milk 
must be cared for and utilized at the farm. With no provision for the care 
and manufacture of such milk, the annual loss from waste will soon amount 
to more than the cost of building and fixtures, to say nothing of the worry 
and trouble in trying to utilize the milk without any conveniences. 

Again, occasions occur when it is desirable to make up the milk on the 
farm to secure the butter or cheese for family use. Possibly, from time to 
time some accident may happen which would exclude a batch of milk from the 
factory, and in such cases it may often be worked up on the farm without 
material loss. Cases not unfrequently occur where a factory is badly managed, 
where the cheese or butter maker is incompetent, and while such a condition 
of things remains, or during the time it may take to make a change of manu- 
tacturers, it will be desirable to hold the milk at the farm. There are a 
variety of circumstances constantly occurring in neighborhoods where fac- 
tories exist which make the necessity for a dairy house imperative, if the 
dairymen would avoid losses, and I therefore think it economy to provide such 
structures, and I hold that they belong to good dairy management. 

what is a proper dairy house, 
and how should it be located ? For convenience it should be situated near 
the milking stables, but out of the way of odors and gases arising from the 
decomposition of manures, since milk absorbs these with great facility, result- 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 43 

ing in injury to the product. Where side-hills are convenient to the other 
buildings they afford advantageous situations for placing the dairy house. In 
such cases the lower story of the house, if built of stone, Avill help to secure 
a low and even temperature for the milk room. A building twenty-five feet by 
thirty feet, a story and a half high, would be ample for a dairy of forty cows. 
The lower part should be divided into two departments, one for butter 
manufacture and the other for cheese. The two departments should be ar- 
ranged so as to afford easy communication, the one with the other. If 

COLD SPRIK^G WATER 

can be conducted into the house the butter department should be arranged 
with water tanks sunk into the earth to hold water twenty inches deep. The 
tanks may be made of wood, but are better if of stone, well cemented. Pipes 
leading from the tank or tanks through the wall on the lower side of the 
building will conduct off surplus water. These tanks are tor holding the cans 
of milk for obtaining cream and will be more fully described hereafter under 
the head of butter manufacture. There should also be 

A SMALL BUTTER CELLAR 

connected with this department by partitioning off a part of the room next 
the bank or hillside. The milk room should have windows at the upper part 
or near the ceiling protected with gaiize wire, so as to be used for ventilation. 
The floor of 

THE CHEESE MAKING ROOM 

may be a step higher than the butter room, and should be provided with self- 
heating vat for cheese making, pi-ess, hoops, and curd knife. The story above 
should be in one room, and is to be employed for curing cheese. There 
should be a large ventilator in the center, rising above the roof of the build- 
ing and extending through the ceiling of the curing room provided with a 
wicket by which the draught may be regulated or shut off as desired. About 
the sides of the room, and even with the floor there should be openings nine 
inches by twelve, arranged with wickets, so that air may be admitted in large 
or small quantities, or closed off, as needed. With the small ventilators at 
the sides and the large ventilator in the center 

THE CURING ROOM 

may be kept free from impurities and noxious gases, while the temperature to 
sojne extent may be controlled in warm weather. The curing room should 
be well lighted, as light operates beneficially in securing a fine flavor to the 
cheese. 

When the dairy house is to be located on a level surface, and stone is ex- 
pensive or not convenient, the building may be wholly of wood, the bottom 
room having double walls, and if possible should be shaded by trees. Instead 
of tanks set in the ground the room may be provided with the 

jenning's pans. 

The pans consist of large shallow tin vats, set in Avooden vats, with spaces 



44 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

between for water. The pans are of various sizes and one pan is designed to liold 




the entire mess of milk of the dairy at one milking. The water may be con- 
veyed to the pans either by pipes leading from the penstock, or it may be 



Prac'iical Dairy Husbandry. 



45 



drawn from the well. I have not proposed here to enter into minute descrip- 
tions of dairy house and apparatus, as these more properly belong to the 
topics in which butter and cheese manufacture are considered. But I have 
given some of the leading features required in the construction of these 
establishments, from which a general idea may be had. 

DESCEIPTION AND PLAIS" OF A FARM DAIRY HOUSE. 

In the plan of farm dairy house here presented, economy, simplicity and 
convenience have been studied, together with the means of regulating tem- 
perature in the cheese-curing room to some extent by the use of wickets and 
ventilators. The design is for farms where cheese dairying is conducted as a 
specialty and where from twenty-five to thirty-five cows are kept. 



PIAZZA 




1 






w 


1 




pi 




1 




1 '^ 




g 1 






1 




E 


fl — 


E 


— 



CURING ROOM 



TABLE 



BASEMENT, OB FEBST FLOOR. 



W A W 



SECOND FLOOR. 



A building twenty-four feet by thirty feet, story and a-half high, will be 
large enough for an ordinary sized dairy — say of the number of cows above- 
named. Light is to be admitted only on the north and south sides, as less 
liable to let rays of the sun fall on the cheese. The lower part is divided into 
rooms for making cheese, twelve by fourteen feet ; store-room, ten by twelve 
feet ; the balance, wood house, eighteen by twenty-four feet. If desired, a 
portion of this latter room may be partitioned ofi", or nearly the whole of it 
converted into a place for setting milk for butter during spring and fall. A 
piazza runs along the sides of the store room and room for making cheese, 
rendering these parts cooler in summer, and affording a convenient place for 
drying aud sunning utensils. The upper part of building, the cheese-curing 
room, twenty-four by thirty feet, eight feet high, studded, and lathed and 
plastered. 

A ventilator runs from ceiling in center of room above the roof, termi- 



46 ' Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

nating in usual form with arrangements at ceiling for closing draft entirely, 
or conducting larger or smaller quantities of air as desired. Air is admitted 
under the roof (where it joins the fides of the building) into the garret, so 
that by opening slides inside the ventilator above the ceiling, a current of air 
may be maintained in the garret part. Openings, with wickets, are placed at 
the bottom of the room, and along and through the sides of the building, to the 
open air — three or more on a side. These openings are ten inches by twenty 
inches ; the wickets close tight or admit more or less air as desired at pleasure. 
An ice reservoir or refrigerator on rollers can be set in the room in which 
ice may be exposed if neccessary, in extremely hot weather. A good coal 
stove, tables with he'tnlock bed-piece, for holding the cheese, thermometer and 
platform scales. These are the general features of the dairy house suggestad. 
The whole will be readily understood by the cuts : — O, O, openings with 
Avickets ; C, chimney ; E, elevator ; D, door for delivering cheese ; A, alleys ; 
W, windows ; V, vat and heater for making cheese ; P, cheese press ; E, ele- 
vator for elevating cheese ; S, stairs ; P, cistern pump. 

AN ABUNDANCE OF GOOD WATER. 

In regard to water I start with the broad proposition universally recog- 
nized by dairymen of long experience, both in this covmtry and in Europe 
that dairying cannot be successfully conducted without an abundance of good 
water to meet the daily wants of stock. Stagnant water, the water from 
sloughs, mingled as it often is with a considerable per centage of vegetable 
matter, even though it be abundant and easy of access, has an unfavorable 
influence on the flavor of " dairy goods," and of itself precludes the dairy- 
man from reaching the highest standard in his product. I have no space now 
to discuss the physiological side of this question, but I state a fact abundantly 
proved in practical experience. There is great difierence of opinion among 
people who are not experts as to 

WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD BUTTER AND GOOD CHEESE. 

Persons whose tastes have been educated by long use of an inferior product 
do not readily appreciate the imperfections existing in second class goods. 
The great markets of the world are demanding better grades of food than they 
did twenty or even ten years ago, and in no class of food is this more observ- 
able than in dairy products. It is only the best article that really pays or is 
made remunerative to the producer for a series of years. We must look then 
to some of 

THE LEADING REQUISITES TO SUCCESS. 

To the dairyman an abundance of pure water, of easy access to stock, will 
be found important. Many suppose that if there be water located on one part 
of the farm, the other parts being dry, that will suffice for all practical pur- 
poses in supplying the needs of dairy stock. This is a mistake, especially 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 47 

where large herds are to be kept. Cows should at no time be compelled to 
travel long distances to slake their thirst, since the greater exertion and labor 
imposed must in proportion affect the quantity as well as the quality of their 
milk. Instances have repeatedly come under my observation where springs 
have failed and cows, in consequence, subjected to travel over a considerable 
distance to gcit water. The milk not only fell off rapidly in quantity, but in 
several Avays depreciated in quality, especially in hot weather, showing a ten- 
dency to quick decomposition, and giving an inferior product when worked 
into cheese. Water should be so conveniently situated in pastures that stock 
will require no extra or special travel to obtain it, and it should be situated 
at such points in the field that stock feeding over the ground naturally go 
toward it, so that when a supply of food has been taken, the animals may 
slake their thirst, lie down and quietly convert their food into milk. 

MILCH STOCK AVERSE TO EXERCISE. 

For it must be observed that milch stock are averse to any large amount 
of exercise, and do not ordinarily care to take more than is necessary in sup- 
plying themselves with food. . Give them plenty of food and an easy access 
to water and they quickly fill themselves and spend most of their time at rest. 
When water is situated in out of the way places on the farm, cows will often 
go thirsty for a considerable portion of the day rather than make a special 
journey to obtain it. This has been observed by all practical farmers, and yet 
it is curious that many who are conversant with the fact neglect to take proper 
advantage of this peculiarity in the habits of the animal. It is an important 
object with the dairyman who desires the highest success, to j^i'omote as far 
as may be (without resorting to artificial means,) the taking of an abundant 
quantity of water by his herd. Milk cannot be made without water, and 
when it is secreted largely, a large amount of water is absolutely required. 

WATER IN MILK. 

Milk of an average good quality contains in one hundred parts from 
eighty-five to eighty-seven parts of water. Is it not surprising that any one 
would suppose that a material like this could be of excellent quality when the 
dilution is made up from pools of stagnant or putrid water, which would be 
shunned by every intelligent mind as the very hot-beds of disease ? And yet 
we often compel our animals to drink this character of water and expect them 
to manufacture from it a pure, healthy milk. The subject demands attention 
everywhere. Where there are an abundance of streams and springs of living 
water they only require to be properly utilized, but where they fail the diffi- 
culty can be obviated in the application of wind-power for raising water from 
wells. 

WIND-POWER FOR PUMPING WATER. 

The modern windmill is a very different affair from the old cumbersome 
and expensive power, which needed constant attention to make it serviceable. 



48 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The modern windmill regulates its own sails according to the force of the 
wind. It is started or stopped with the greatest ease ; it is easily erected and 
is not expensive, and therefore comes within the reach of any ordinary farmer. 
Where pure water then may be had from wells, there can be no excuse for sub- 
jecting the herd to the bad influences I have enumerated, and I am convinced 
that one of the troubles complained of in the flavor of cheese is caused by 
bad water, and the sooner dairy farmers look this thing fairly in the face and 
set about correcting the evil, the sooner will they be on the right road to 
success. It should be understood that bad water must always be an insepar- 
able objection to the production of the nicer grades of butter and cheese. 
Where good clean running water cannot be had, I should advise the digging 
of wells and the use of wind-poAver for pumping water, at convenient points 
over the pasture lands. Then large tanks or troughs should be provided 
and arranged so that the surplus water may flow back into the well, as this 
course keeps the water in motion and obviates, in a measure, the necessity of 
extreme care and attention. 

SHADES IN PASTTJEES. 

There are those who advocate that shades in pastures are detrimental to 
milch cows ; or rather, that shade trees, by affording a comfortable place for 
cows to rest during hot weather, cause a decrease in their milk, and therefore 
they are objectionable, by holding out inducements to and fostering habits of 
laziness on the part of the cows. They reason that cows, to yield a large 
quantity of milk, will require a proportionate amount of food ; that the longer 
you can keep the cow feeding, the more grass she will store away to be manu- 
factured into milk. In hot weather, they say, cows are not disposed to be 
industrious, but lounge lazily under shade trees in the middle of the day, wast- 
ing valuable time and, what is of more consequence, neglecting to keep the 
milk-producing machinery in vigorous operation. If the pastures are deprived 
of shade, they say the cows will find it uncomfortable resting in the hot sim, 
will prefer to keep more upon their feet, and are therefore induced to spend 
most of their time in feeding. Some dairymen therefore cut down and destroy 
every vestige of shade in pastures, and are earnestly recommending this sys- 
tem to the dairy public. I hear of some so eager in carrying out this princi- 
ple that pains are taken to go out among the herd from time to time during 
the day, starting the animals up from their resting places, and thus urging 
them to the consumption of more food. 

I do not approve of this system, nor do I believe that it has any advan- 
tages on the score of economy. It certainly cannot commend itself for its 
humanity, since the system is a species of cruelty and a disregard for the 
comfort of creatures which, though dumb and devoid of reason, have the 
more claim to our kind care and protection. > 

THE FORCING SYSTEM. 

It is undoubtedly true that the quantity of milk can be increased under a 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 49 

forcing system of feeding if certain circumstances and conditions are ob- 
served. And, first among these conditions is quietness and freedom from 
anything like labor or extra exertion on the part of the cow. A certain 
amount of exercise may be needed for health, but all exercise produces a 
waste of the animal structure which must be repaired by food. The first 
office of food is to support respiration and repair the natural waste of the 
body, and if the waste is excessive, by reason of excessive labor, the food 
will go first to supply this waste and after that for the production of milk. 
Hence, those who study to get large results from milch cows are careful to 

KEEP THE ANIMALS AS QUIET AS POSSIBLE, 

avoiding excessive travel or labor, taking care that there be no disturbing 
causes for excitement, such as fear, anxiety, or solicitude, for these waste food, 
and check the secretion of milk to a much larger extent than most people 
imagine. The jsrinciple is true, whether acknowledged or not, that the more 
comfortable we make our milk stock the better will be the results. If during 
the heat of the day cattle seek shade and lie down to rest, their quietness, com- 
fort and enjoyment will add more to the milk-pail than food taken in discom- 
fort and excessive exercise. We are presuming, of course, that the animals 
are placed in pastures that afibrd an abundance of food, and pastures should 
never be overstocked. In good pastures 

IT IS NOT NECESSARY THAT COWS SHOULD BE CONSTANTLY FEEDING, 

for we can see from the peculiar structure of their stomachs, that nature in- 
tended a considerable portion of time to be spent at rest, that the process of 
rumination and digestion be perfected. The first stomach seems to be simply 
a receptacle for storing up a quantity of food to be used and enjoyed at leisure. 
The food as it goes into the first stomach is very imperfectly masticated. 
After having filled this receptacle the animal rests from her labors and is now 
prepared to enjoy her food, which is thrown back in small quantities into the 
mouth, where it is chewed, and then goes into the third and fourth stomachs 
to be properly assimilated and digested. Hence rest is required ; and to de- 
prive the animal of a comfortable resting-place or to drive her out in the hot 
sun while in the act of rumination or masticating her food is not only cruel 
but a piece of intolerable stupidity. 

THE ONLY KEAL ARGUMENT AGAINST SHADE TREES 

in pastures is, that the animals collect there and deposit manure where it is not 
needed. The proper way to avoid this is to erect temporary shades, and they 
can be removed from time to time to difierent parts of the field and thus be 
made of double service — afibrding comfort to cattle and manuring the land. 
I have seen this plan adopted with the best results ; the temporary shades 
being placed on barren knolls and the poorest parts of the pastures, and these 
places were thus brought into a high state of fertility. I believe in shade 

4 



50 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

trees and shades in pastures, and am convinced from observation and expe- 
rience that the herds do better with them than without them. It is an inhuman 
practice to compel cattle to bear the intense rays of the sun during our hot 
summers. They need protection at such seasons, and if man finds shade at 
times 'not only grateful but necessary, I cannot see why the same rule may 
not apply ia some degree to our domestic animals. It is true they may not 
die from- exposure to the sun's rays, but if the hot, panting beasts could speak 
we should learn that their health was not promoted by this exposure. 




MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS, 



THE GRASS CROP IS, 

without doubt, one of the most, if not the most important of any known to 
aoriculture. It is the basis for all successful farming. It is the natural food 
of our most useful animals, and without grass we should soon have no stock, 
no manures, and scarcely any cultivated crop. The money value of the grass 
crop in the United States is immense. Lewis F. Allen, in his work on 
American cattle, estimates the number of neat cattle in the States and Terri- 
tories in 1867 at 28,145,240 head, and he puts their value at a thousand mil- 
lions of dollars. 

That is only one item which may be credited to grass ; for if we add the 
annual product of the ten millions of milch cows, together with the horses 
and the sheep and wool of the country, we shall begin to appreciate how 
much the nation owes to grass for its prosperity and wealth. Indeed, the 
enormous value of this crop is comparatively overlooked by political econo- 
mists in their calculations. 

Before going into an examination of its pecuniary value let us look for a 
moment at its value in the higher and more extensive relations it bears to the 
comforts not only, but existence of the human race. 

" All flesh is grass," say the Scriptures, but in a different and more ex- 
tensive sense than is there conveyed is, truly, all flesh grass. Strike out of 
existence the two great families of the bovine and wool-bearing animals, and 
where would the human race be left ? To say nothing of the innumerable 
comforts that spring from these two races of animals, such as wool, leather, 
&c., for which various substitutes could be doubtless discovered, the very 
existence of a large part of mankind is directly dependent upon them. 

Despising all vegetarian theories, we only call upon the common sense of 
mankind to prove that without meat, which is itself fed, nourished, and sus- 
tained upon grass and grass alone, one-half the human race would perish at 
once. Such is the value of grass aesthetically considered. But look at the 

PECUNIARY VALUE OP GRASS, 

and for this purpose we may refer to official statistics. In the report of the 
Agricultural Department for 1864 the value of the hay crop that year in the 
United States is put at $365,707,074. Commissioner Wells gives the hay 



52 Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 



^ 



crop of 1860 at 25,000,000 tons. He estimates its value at llOper ton, which 
amounts to 1250,000,000. 

But the value of pasturage must be equally as great, or greater. For 
probably, taking the country together, the hay represents the maintenance 
of the live stock for one-third only of the year, while pasturage embraces 
tAVO-thirds. Then there is the labor of gathering the hay, which goes into its 
value to offset a part of that. "We cannot estimate the value of the grass 
crop for 1869, therefore, at less than 1700,000,000. Remember we speak here 
of grass in its popular sense, as embracing the clovers, which, strictly speak- 
ing, belong to the leguminous family of plants. 

Now the cotton crop of 1869 was valued at $303,000,000, corn at |450,000,- 
000, wheat, 1375,000,000, oats, $137,000,000, potatoes, $90,000,000. Who will 
say in view of these facts that cotton, or corn, or wheat is king ? Among all 
the productions of the earth grass, unpretentious though it be, is truly king. 
It is the only truly indispensable product of the earth that nature herself takes 
care shall not fail. But for dairy farmers — who owe so much to this crop, 
and which if it failed but for a single season wide-spread ruin would stalk 
abroad — its importance need not further be discussed. 

The great question with dairy farmers to-day and at all times must be in 
what way can grass be made to thrive and produce abundantly ? The ques- 
tion is a broad one and I shall first touch upon the matter of pastures. 

PASTUEES, OVERSTOCKING, ETC. 

In the first place many pastures are habitually overstocked. By this prac- 
tice the roots of grasses and the whole plants are kept so small that their growth 
is feeble, and not one-half the feed is afforded that the land would produce if 
stocked lightly a year or two and the grass allowed to get a good thrifty 
start. But this is not the only disadvantage from overstocking. The feebly 
growth of the grasses allows other plants to creep in, and the ground soon be- 
comes overrun with weeds, which on account of their not being cropped by 
stock, grow in great luxuriance, maturing their seed and thus impoverishing 
the soil. 

THE CUESE OF AMEEICAISr DAIEYIKG 

to-day is weeds. When once they get full possession they become so formid- 
able that the farmer is often disheartened and gives up their eradication. Many 
farmers, too, have an erroneous notion in regard to the destruction of weeds 
on grass lands. The impression often prevails that the only way of getting rid 
of weeds is to break up and thoroughly cultivate the ground in hoed cro^^s. This 
is not always convenient or even desirable, for in many cases it cannot be done 
without breaking up the herd or dairy, while some uneven sui-faces cannot be 
plowed. There is another way of killing weeds such as the daisy and that 
class of plants, by the liberal use of manures and grass seeds. I have erad- 
icated white daisy in several instances by simply applying farm yard dung and 
gypsum, and strewing the ground with a heavy seeding of clover. Establish 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 63 

your clover upon the soil and feed it until it is luxuriant and it destroys the 
daisy and other weeds, by a system of plant-garroting, strangling and chok- 
ing the life out of them. Then some weeds may be killed by frequent cutting • 
and not allowing them to seed. It is always advisable to pull up or extermi- 
nate bad weeds on their first appearance in pastures, and not allow them to 
'spread. 

The subject of pastures is of great importance to the dairy interest. To 
know how to produce milk cheaply and of the best quality, is the underlying 
stone of the dairyman's success. The points to be determined, it seems to 
me, are these : 

"WHAT KIND OF PASTUKES ARE BEST FOR THE DAIRY ? 

Are they those which have been long in grass, or are they those which have 
been recently plowed and re-seeded ? Can pastures be kept productive when 
remaining long in grass ; or in beginning to fail, is it necessary to renew by 
plowing and re-seeding ; and, finally, what are the cheapest as well as the best 
modes of obtaining quality and productiveness of pasturage ? 

In considering these questions it should be borne in mind that the subject 
has reference to pastures for the production of milk, or those adapted to the 
dairy. Soils vary in character, and when under the modifying influence of 
climate and location, exhibit a peculiar fitness for certain plants ; thus we have 
those best adapted to the production of grain, grass, fruit, or for those 
abounding in textile fiber. 

I have said you cannot profitably carry the daiiy upon the extensive plains 
of the West and South-west. They lack water. Pastures become brown and 
dried up long before midsummer ; nor will they hold grasses of any ap- 
proved kind for any long time. We are not, therefore, to consider the treat- 
ment of all pasture lands alike, but of those that are particularly well adapted 
to grass, and which cover a considerable portion of the lands known as the 
dairy region. 

Now, what are we to do with pasture lands that begin to fail from over- 
cropping, or from other causes ? Shall we plow them up, re-seed, or shall we 
adopt some other mode of renovation ? I know of pastures that have been 
in grass for sixty years and upwards, and to-day show no signs of failure, 
Wherever I have been through the dairy region I find these pastures, and it 
is the universal testimony of those who have them that they are yielding better 
returns in milk than any recently re-seeded grounds. 

I have seen old pastures plowed, re-seeded, and put in meadow, where the 
annual crop for a few years was large, but when put back again in pastures 
gave poor returns, and took years to obtain a nice, thick sod. This may not 
always be the case, but it is frequent and, I am inclined to think, general. 

It may be said that the fault lay in re-seeding ; that a greater variety of 
seeds should have been sown, timothy, the clovers, orchard-grass, blue grass, 
red top, &c. Our farmers generally, I believe, seed mostly with timothy, 



f 



54 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

clover and red top, using the ground at first for meadows, and afterwards for 
pastures. What we want (and it is usually that which obtains in old pastures) 
■ is a variety of grasses springing up in succession, and those that will bear 
cropping, so that they will afibrd a good fresh bite from May till November. 

OLD PASTURES 

are generally filled with a variety of plants that are adapted to the soil, and 
in plowing and taking ofi" grain crops and then re-seeding, the conditions or 
elements of fertility are somewhat changed, so that anticipated results are not 
always obtained. 

In 1855 I plowed up an old meadow, about two acres of which was yield- 
ing large crops of timothy and clover, but so situated in the field that the hay 
crop could not be got off in time. I took from these two acres the first year 
one hundred and eighty bushels of corn and the second year one hundred 
bushels of barley, when the land was seeded down to timothy and clover. 
For two or three years it did not produce satisfactorily, though receiving the 
usual dressing of plaster. I also top-dressed it with stable manure — perhaps 
twenty loads to the acre — but without getting the large crops of grass that I 
did before re-seeding. Some mineral elements, therefore, I supposed to be 
wanting — perhaps potash, and so I top-dressed with ashes and had no further 
trouble. I have seen quite a number of old pastures that were yielding 
tolerably well, plowed with somewhat similar results. The land would bear 
abundant crops of grain, but grass failed to be enduring, or \vas less nutri- - 
tious, and hence frequent plowings and re-seedings were resorted to. 

OLD PASTURES FOR FATTENING STOCK. 

I have visited many stock farms where men make a business of buying 
cattle and fattening them for the market, and they say to me that they havp 
never been able 'to fatten stock with that facility from grass raised on newly 
seeded grounds as on that of those put down many years ago, or from pas- 
tures that have never been broken up at all. Others make similar statements. 
I shall not dispute the point that we may doctor up our lands to produce any 
desired crop, but to do so is expensive, and will often require more science 
and skill than are common in the country. 

When nature furnishes the conditions for producing grasses that give the 
best results in milk, and when these grasses become firmly established in the 
soil, are we not pursuing a suicidal policy in destroying them, by over-cropping, 
or by allowing weeds to smother and crowd them from the soil, under the impres- 
sion that our pastures can be renewed at any time by plowing and re-seeding ? 

Woiild it not be better and cheaper to exterminate weeds and give our 
pastures some rest during the hot, dry weather of July and August, by feed- 
ing sowed corn instead of cropping down to the roots and allowing the sun to 
roast them oiit and destroy the plants ? It is the weeds, and over-cropping, 
and unprotected covering of pasture lands in hot weather that are the fruitful 
sources of failure of grass in pastures. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 65 

Generally on rich soils, like those of Herkimer, IS". Y., the old dairy pastures 
need but little, if any, organic matter ; the decay of roots and the droppings of 
stock supply this matter in abundance, and hence the application of cheap min- 
eral manures is that which is most needed. These, of course, can be readily 
supplied , but if we are to plow ujd and take off grain crops, barn-yard manures 
must be used, which are more expensive. 

It is very unprofitable for the dairyman to break up lands that are yielding, 
or can be made to yield readily, good crops of grass. Our most successful 
dairymen in the Eastern and Middle States believe that grain can be pur- 
chased from abroad cheaper than they can raise it. Grain raising, therefore, 
with many is considered a matter of necessity rather than choice, but grass 
fails and the lands are plowed and re-seeded. This may be well enough for 
meadows, but is not so conveniently managed in pastures. 

If a part of the pasture land begins to fail and it is designed to plow and 
re-seed, the land must be fenced, which is expensive and often inconvenient. 
But after getting it down to grass cattle cannot be turned in until the plants 
become somewhat established, as they tread up the ground, pull up the grass 
by the roots, and by midsummer there is a barren field. Again, to plow pas- 
ture lands the herd must be reduced to meet the necessities of the case. This 
is also an objectionable feature, and one that is always distasteful to the 
dairyman. 

TOP-DEESSING GRASS LANDS. 

When grass utterly fails, plowing and re-seeding doubtless should be re- 
sorted to ; but generally pasture lands may be kept permanently in grass by 
giving them a little extra care and attention. If they begin to fail from over- 
cropping or neglect, a judicious course of top-dressing and sowing seed will 
be found preferable to the plow. Usually on the black, slate lands of Herki- 
mer, plaster at the rate of one hundred to two hundred pounds to the acre 
every alternate year will keep pasture lands in good <!ondition. I have found 
great benefit from the use of ashes in connection with plaster, at the rate of 
two or three barrels per acre ; well decomposed horse manure hauled out in 
the fall, broken up fine and applied when the cows are in the afterfeed, has 
produced good results. I have no doubt but that all pasture lands in the 
dairy region would be greatly benefited by the use of bones, as this material 
is largely taken from the soil. 

The quantity of phosphates that have been removed from soils long em- 
ployed in daii-ying must be very large. When in Europe in 1866 I had an in- 
terview with Professor Voelckee, who has made so many analyses of milk. 
In his laboratory the different constituents in a gallon of milk are separated 
in bottles. One bottle contains the oil, another the casein, another the phos- 
phates, another the milk-sugar, &c., &c. 

THE QUANTITY OF PHOSPHATES IN A GALLON OE MILK 

is by no means infinitesimal, but if placed in the hand would surprise most 



56 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

dairy farmers on account of its bulk. If we consider for a moment the large 
number of such handsful that are taken from dairy pastures in milk every 
year and never returned, and in addition the bone material required in the 
young calf it must be evident that some soils at least are deteriorating in this 
element. 

The Doctor remarked, while showing the bottle containing the phosphates, 
that they were really the manure, upon which the finer and more nutritious 
grasses feed, and that the best results nearly always follow from their appli- 
cation upon old dairy farms. There is an immense waste of bones in America. 
In England they are husbanded and imported from America and other coun- 
tries, and largely used. 

The views of Dr. Voelcker correspond with my own observation and 
experience in regard to old pastures, if properly kept up in fertility, being 
superior for milk to newly cultivated grounds. 

THE QUAXITT OF MILK, 

he says, is greatly influenced by the finer grasses native to the soil, and these 
are only found upon the old swards. When we commence cultivating by 
breaking up, we get a coarser herbage that produces an inferior quality of 
milk. 

TOP-DRESSING WITH ARTIFICIAL MANURE. 

The remarks of Dr. Voelcker in a recent lecture before the Derby- 
shire Agricultural Society may be of interest in this connection. He 
said that some years ago he made a series of experiments with a vai'iety 
of artificial manures as applied to grass lands ; and the result of those 
experiments, carried out on a tolerably large scale in several counties in 
England, was to lead him to the conclusion that the most economical and 
most efficient manure that could be applied to grass lands was good farm 
yard manure. No manure produced so good a result, if they could get 
plenty of it, as good stable dung on grass land; but as they could not 
always get enough they must get the next best, or the land, instead of 
becoming richer would become poorer and poorer. In determining which was 
the best substitute, they had to consider what was the character of the land. 
If, as was the case with most of the Derby pastures, the land required lime ; 
they should lime it Avell, and having done so, leave it for a coujDle of years 
without putting any manure at all upon it. His experience showed that in 
most counties of England it was desirable to apply bones to grass land, but 
bones never did well on newly limed lands, and in many cases where they had 
been so applied, he had not been able to see where the bones went to. It was 
very important to settle the point Avhether the land needed lime. If the 
herbage looked unhealthy or " deathlike," as people said, they might take a 
little of the soil and pour upon it weak spirits of salt, and if there was an 
effervescence that would be an indication that there was enough lime. If they 



Peactical Dairy Husbandry. 67 

tested the land in that locality they would find that by far the larger part of 
the pasture land required lime. The efiects of liming might be regarded as 
permanent, and after its application they should adopt other means. Suppos- 
ing the lime to be thoroughly incorporated with the land, the next thing to 
be decided was whether bones would answer as a manure. There were no 
general rules which would hold good under all circumstances. On some 
descriptions of land bones had little effect ; on others the efiect was perfectly 
marvelous. Speaking generally, on heavy soils fresh bone dust, at any rate, 
did not show so well as on light and more porous soils ; and as some bone 
manure was rather expensive at the present time it was well to make an ex- 
periment on a small scale before applying it extensively. The result of his 
inquiries went to show that all good artificial manures for grass lands should 
contain a certain proportion of phosphatic materials, if possible, in the shape 
of bone dust ; and light land should also be supplied with salts of potash. 
Pasture lands to yield a good crop must be also supplied with a considerable 
proportion of nitrogenous matter in the shape of ammoniacal salts, and he 
would recommend for light pasture lands mixtures of manures which should 
include potash — a good deal of which was now got from Germany, where it 
had been discovered in a state called Kaihit. They ought to pay for that 
something like £3 to £3 1 Os. per ton retail. It was imported into England 
for something like £2 10s. It was retailed at £4, which was rather too much 
profit, and the farmers should insist upon getting it for less, and the dealers 
could well afibrd to reduce the price. He Avould recommend for light marly 
grass land one hundred weight of superphosphate, which would cost six shil- 
lings ; two hundred weight of bone dust, which at seven shillings and sixpence, 
would be fifteen shillings ; two hundred weight of potash salt, at four 
shillings, which would be eight shillings ; and one and a-half hundredweight 
of Peruvian guano, which would be £1 or twenty-one shillings, making a 
total of £2 IQs. per acre. He would not advise them to lay out less than 
that if they wished to apply artificial manure to grass land at all, as he 
thought it would be like wasting away powder by dribbling it into the breech- 
lock of a gun, where it would produce no effect. Two hundred weight of bone 
dust and the same quantity of Peruvian guano, and three-fourths hundred 
weight of nitrate of soda made a very good dressing for light grass lands. 
On heavy soils they might leave out the potash salts, more especially if they 
contained a fair proportion of the better description of the more unctuous 
kinds of red clay. 

FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON CLOVER SEEDS AND PERMANENT PASTURE. 

In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, issued in 
1869, Dr. VoELCKER gives a report of experiments on clover seeds and 
permanent pasture. Subjoined are the experiments: 

Field Mcperiments 07i Clover Seeds, made in 1867 at JEscricTc Park Home 
Farm, hy Messrs. Coleinan and Hidl. 

The field upon which the following experiments were tried grew barley in 



58 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



the preceding year. The usual mixture of clovers and Italian rye-grasa was 
sown with the barley. The seeds came up well, and the plant was tolerably 
good and uniform on the piece selected for the experiments. Apparently the 
selected piece of land was uniform in depth and in its general character. It 
was divided into eleven equal and adjoining plots of one-twentieth of an acre 
each. The eleven plots were treated as follows, as regards manure : 



I 



10 
11 



Name of Manubb. 



Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Mineral superphosphate 

Common salt 

No manure 

JMuriate of potash 

Sulphate of potash 

Sulphate of lime 

Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda. . 
Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash, 
No manure 



Quantity of Mak- 
XJEE FEB Plot. 



331^ Ihs. 
331^ Ihs. 
331^ lbs. 
33i| lbs. 



331^ lbs. 
331^ lbs. 
1 lb. 
331^ lbs. 
33i| lbs. 



Bate per Aorb. 



ct. 

4 
4 
4 
4 



lb. 











The artificial manures were sown by hand on the 11th of April; the clover 
was cut on the 12th of June for the first time, and a second cutting was 
obtained August 24th, 1867. The produce of each plot was carefully weighed 
on the same day, and as soon as cut, when the results incorporated in the 
following table were obtained : 

Table showing the Pfoduce of Artificial Grasses (mixed Clover and Rye-grass) on Experi- 
mental plots of one-twentieth of an acre each, made at Escrick Park Home Farm, 
York, in 1867: 



1 
2 
8 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 



Manuee Used. 



Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Mineral superphosphate 

Common salt 

No manure 

Muriate of potash 

Sulphate of potash 

Sulphate of lime 

Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda 

Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash .. 
No manure 



Weight of Cloteh. 


First cut- 

TIN&. 


Second Cut- 
ting. 


TOTAi. 


Ct. qr. lb. 


Ct. qr. lb. 


ct. qr. lb. 


8 3 7 


3 7 


10 3 14 


10 3 


3 1 17 


13 3 17 


5 3 14 


3 3 9 


8 23 


5 3 16 


3 2 7 


8 16 


5 1 36 


3 3 4 


8 10 


6 1 31 


3 1 14 


9 3 7 


5 1 13 


3 3 7 


7 3 19 


4 1 33 


3 3 3 


6 3 36 


10 3 16 


3 


13 3 16 


9 


4 3 3 


13 3 3 


6 17 


3 3 2 


8 3 19 



Mr. Hull kindly furnished me with the following notes, which he took on 
the field during the progress of the experiments. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 69 

The manures were sown on the 11th of April, and no perceptible change 
was produced by any one of them until the 23d of April, when the clover 
seeds on plot 1 and plot 9 could readily be distinguished from those on all the 
other plots by their darker green color and more vigorous growth. 

First Cutting. 

Plot 1 was dressed with nitrate of soda alone, and plot 9 with a mixture 
of nitrate of soda and superphosphate. Both plots had a darker green color 
than the rest throughout the experiment. 

The nitrate of soda on plot 1 encouraged the growth of the rye-grass to 
such an extent that it quite smothered the growth of the clover plant. 

Plot 2. Sulphate of A'inmonia. — The rye-grass grew vigorously, but was 
not so long and coarse as the rye-grass on the plot dressed with nitrate of soda, 
while it was superior in quality in comparison with the latter. The clover on 
the plot grew fairly, but was weak. 

Plot 3. Mineral Superphosphate. — Rye-gi'ass good, but clover thin ; very 
weak, and much blighted. 

Plot 4. Gommon Salt. — Rye-grass and clover fair, but short. 

Plot 5. N^o i!/awwre.^Appearance of plant much like that on preceding 
plot. 

Plot 6. Muriate of Potash. — The clover on this plot was very good, both 
as regards color and vigor of growth, and the rye-grass also was strong and 
of good quality; 

Plot 7. Sulphate of Potash. — Clover good, but rye-grass weak. 

Plot 8. Sulphate of Lime. — Rye-grass very thin and unhealthy in appear- 
ance ; the worst piece of the eleven experimental plots. 

Plot 9. Nitrate of Soda and Superphosphate. — Clover plant quite 
smothered by rye-gi*ass, which grew very long and coarse, and of quality little 
better than good oat straw. 

Plot 10. Superphosphate and Muriate of Potash. — ^Decidedly the best 
plot ; clover remarkably strong, with a good broad leaf of a dark green color. 
Rye-grass also very vigorous and of excellent quality. 

Plot 11. No Manure. — About the same as plots 3, 4 and 5. 

Second Cutting. 

Plot 1. There was scarcely any clover in the second cutting, and rye-grass 
also was very thin and weak. 

Plot 2. Clover very weak ; rye-grass much better than on the preceding 
plot, though short. 

Plot 3. Much the same as plot 2 ; rye-grass not quite so strong. 

Plot 4. Rye-grass and clover short and weak. 

Plot 5. Clover fair ; rye-grass short. 

Plot 6. Rye-grass good ; clover leaves broad and of a good color. 

Plot 7. Clover good, but rye-grass weak and thin. 



60 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Plot 8. The produce on plot 8 small and weak. 

Plot 9. Merely a few plants of clover were left on plot 9 after the first 
cutting, and the rye-grass was very thin and weak ; the soil appearing to have 
been quite exhausted by the first cutting. 

Plot 10. Clover very good, with a good broad and dark-colored leaf; the 
rye-grass also strong and healthy. By far the best plot. 

Plot 11. Much the same as 4 and 5. 

We owe to Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert a series of most valuable and 
instructive field experiments on the influence of different fertilizing matters on 
the quantity and quality of the produce of permanent pastures. The changes 
which several of the fertilizers employed by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert 
produced in the character of the herbage of several of their experimental plots 
are so instructive that for some years past I have made it a point to pay a visit 
to Rothamsted Park at the time when the grass crop is in the hight of perfec- 
tion. Having frequently seen with my own eyes in what a remarkable 
degree the growth of true grasses, especially the coarser kinds, is encouraged 
by nitrogenous fertilizers, and having also noticed the changes which a mix- 
ture of salts of potash and superphosphate produces on permanent pasture in 
the relative proportions of leguminous plants and true grasses, I was quite 
prepared for similar changes in the produce of the Escrick experiments. But 
the difference in the quality of the produce of some of the experimental plots 
at Escrick Park was more striking than that which I had previously witness- 
ed at Rothamsted Park, or anywhere else. 

The Italian rye-grass on plot 9 I found at harvest time, as Mr. Hull truly 
observes, so exceedingly coarse^that it appeared scarcely better than good oat 
straw, and very few clover plants could be seen. Again, the effect which 
muriate of potash, and in a still higher degree a mixture of muriate of potash 
and superphosphate produced on the clover plant was truly magical. 

I never before witnessed anything so striking and instructive as these ex- 
periments on artificial grasses. There must, of course, be a good reason why 
in this instance the quality as well as the quantity of the grass crop were so 
much more powerfully affected by the different manures than I found to be 
the case in other experimental trials. We know that the character of the 
soil materially affects the quality and the weight of the crops we raise upon 
different classes of soil. It is, therefore, natural to connect the remarkable 
results obtained in the Escrick Park experiments with the peculiar character of 
the soil on the experimental field. I have, therefore, taken care to obtain a 
fair average sample from the field on which the grass experiments were tried, 
and after drying the sample at 212 Fahr., I submitted it to a careful analysis, 
according to which the composition of the soil is represented in the table 
on the following page. 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 61 

Composition of the Soil of the Field at Escrick Park Home Farm, on which the Experi- 
ments upon Clover seeds were tried : 

Organic matter and loss on heating 4.28 

Oxide of iron !..!!..!!**.'.!...! .^1 

Alumina \ 2.16 

Carbonate of lime '39 

Sulphate of lime ..'.'.'. .25 

Carbonate of magnesia .23 

Potash ' .14 

Soda .'..".".'.".'.'.*!!."."!".!.'.'.' .05 

Phosphoric acid 08 

Insoluble silicious matter (sand) 91.81 

100.00 

Even a superficial inspection will show at once that this is an extremely- 
poor and very light, sandy soil. Mr. Coleman, moreover, informs me that 
the field from which this soil had been taken, had been badly farmed, and 
that it was in consequence in a poor agricultural condition. 

It will be noticed that this soil is remarkably poor in available potash, and 
I may add, in almost all the more valuable fertilizing constituents found in 
good soils. The total amount of oxide of iron and alumina was not quite 
three per cent,, and of lime there was not a-half per cent. On the other hand 
it abounds in silica, for on examination I found the ninety-two per cent, of 
silicious matter which enters into the composition of this soil to consist almost 
entirely of pure fine grained quartz sand. 

I need hardly say that a soil containing ninety-two per cent, of sand and 
very little clay, and a still smaller proportion of the more valuable soil-con- 
stituents has to be regarded as extremely poor. Such soils are readily 
exhausted by cropping, and though they will yield fair crops when literally 
supplied with manure, they are naturally very unproductive. 

The extreme poverty of this soil in available potash at once intelligibly 
explains the benefits which both the clover seeds and the Italian rye-grass de- 
rived from the application of muriate of potash ; and presents us with a good 
illustration of the utility of chemical analyses and the aid of the chemist, of 
which the practical farmer may occasionally avail himself with advantage. 
The analysis clearly points out a deficiency of potash and also of phosphoric 
acid ; and hence the employment of potash manures on land of that descrip- 
tion may be recommended with confidence. The comjDosition of land like 
that of the soil of the experimental field, moreover, shows that lime or clay- 
marl may be applied to it with advantage, and that it is impossible to grow 
any good roots, or barley, or wheat, or clover on land of that character with- 
out giving it a liberal dressing of phosphoi'ic manures. Moreover, the loose 
and porous nature of the soil, and the want of a fair proportion of clay in it, 
clearly indicates the necessity of manuring it but very moderately with am- 
moniacal or nitrogenous manures ; for as the proportion of available mineral 
constituents which enters into the composition of the ashes of our usual farm 
crops is but small, and the solubility of these matters in water is greatly 



62 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



facilitated by ammoniacal salts, such poor soils are all the more rapidly- 
exhausted when the crops grown upon them are too liberally manured with 
fertilizers rich in nitrogenous matters, or in salts of ammonia. 

For the sake of better comparison 1 have calculated the yield of each 
experimental plot for an acre, and placed the results in the subjoined table: 

Table showing the Green produce per Acre of 11 Plots of Artificial Grass (Clover seed and 
Eye-grass) grown at Escrick Park Home Farm, 1867 : 



Mahtjkes Used. 



Produce peb Aceb. 


FrasT Cttt- 


Second Cut- 




TiNa. 


ting. 


Total. 


ts. ct. lb. 


ts. ct. lb. 


ts. ct. lb. 


8 10 28 


2 1 28 


10 12 56 


10 10 


2 8 4 


12 18 4 


5 12 56 


2 11 68 


8 4 12 


5 12 96 


2 11 28 


8 4 12 


5 9 72 


2 15 80 


8 5 40 


6 8 84 


3 7 56 


9 16 28 


5 7 16 


2 11 28 


7 18 44 


4 9 12 


2 10 60 


6 19 72 


10 17 96 


2 


12 17 96 


9 


4 15 40 


13 15 40 


6 3 4 


2 15 40 


8 18 44 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 



Nitrate of soda 

Sulphate of ammonia 

Mineral superphosphate 

Common salt 

No manure 

Muriate of potasli 

Sulphate of potash 

Sulphate of lime 

Mineral superphosphate and nitrate of soda. . 
Mineral superphosphate and muriate of potash 
No manure 



An attentive perusal of the preceding figures will bring to light several 
particulars on which a few observations may not be out of place. 

1. In the first place it will be noticed that two plots were left unmanured. 
In all experimental trials, at least two, or, if possible, three plots, should be 
left unmanured. Although the crop in a field may appear quite even and the 
soil uniform as regards depth, texture and general character, the weight of 
the produce of such a field invariably difiers to some extent in difi(erent parts. 
Natural variation in the productive powers of difierent portions of the same 
experimental field must be expected to occur in all cases ; but these variations 
must not surpass a certain limit, or else no fair and legitimate deduction with 
respect to the efficacy of the manuring matters employed can be made from 
the results of the experiments. Many of the anomalies which so much jDer- 
plex the experimenting fai'mer, I am inclined to think, are often solely due to 
inequalities in the soil, or to differences in the agricultural condition of the 
several experimental plots. For this reason it is absolutely necessary in field 
trials to determine whether the natural variations in the productive powers of 
different parts of the experimental field are not so great as to spoil the exper- 
iments altogether. In the case before us it will be seen that one of the un- 
manured plots yielded, when calculated per acre, eight tons five hundred 
weight and forty pounds, and the second plot eight tons. eighteen hundred 
weight and forty-four pounds ; the variation in the production of the two 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 63 

plots thus amounted to thirteen hundred weight and four pounds, showing 
no greater difference than can be expected under favorable circumstances. 

2. Neither common salt nor s\xlphate of potash appears to have had any 
effect upon the produce, for it will be seen that the Aveight of the clover seeds 
on plots 4 and 7, dressed respectively with salt and sulphate of potash, was 
somewhat less than that of the unmanured plots. I attach no value to the 
apparent diminution of the produce on plots 4 and V, for the increase is not 
sufficiently large to entitle us to infer from the result that the saline matters 
used on these two plots had an injurious effect upon the crop. 

3. On plot 8 sulphate of lime was used at the rate of one ton per acre. This 
is a very large dose. Although sulphate of lime and gypsum is but spar- 
ingly soluble in water, and for that reason may be used with perfect safety 
in much larger quantities than in this expei'iment, provided it is well mixed 
with the soil, a large dose of finely-powdered gypsum, when applied as a top- 
dressing to young clover seeds, appears to injure the plants and to retard 
their growth. 

4. It is worthy of notice that while common salt had no effect upon the 
produce, muriate of potash materially increased it. We have here another 
direct proof that soda is incapable of taking the place of potash in the nutri- 
tion of plants. 

5. On plot 3 mineral superphosphate alone had no effect whatever on the 
crop. This is an interesting result, for it seems to indicate that the great de- 
ficiency of potash, which is characteristic of the soil of the experimental field, 
entirely prevented the display of the useful functions which we know per- 
fectly well that superphosphate of lime does discharge on land of a better char- 
acter. On poor, light, sandy soils we may learn from this that a purely 
mineral superphosphate cannot be used with advantage for clover seeds. I 
may observe in passing that on such soils mineral superphosphate has even 
little effect upon root crops, for which phosphatic manures are so largely used 
with the best effect. 

6. It is remarkable that while plot 3, manured with mineral superphos- 
phate, gave no increase whatever ; and plot 6, manured with muriate of 
potash, gave an increase of one ton four hundred weight and forty-two pounds 
over the average produce of the two unmanured plots, (average produce eight 
tons eleven hundred weight and ninety-eight pounds,) the mixture of both 
manures on plot 10 gave the largest weight of clover seed and rye-grass per 
acre of any of the eleven experimental plots. 

In the first cutting plot 10 produced nine tons, and in second nearly five 
tons of green clover seeds, or both cuttings yielded in exact weight thirteen 
tons fifteen hundredweight and forty pounds, which is an increase of five tons 
three hundred weight and sixty-four pounds per acre over the average yield of 
the two unmanured plots. 

Plot 10 gave not only the largest increase per acre, but the quality of both 



64 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



1 



the clover and rye-grass was much superior to that of the produce of any other 
of the various experimental plots. 

7. There is another circumstance connected with the result obtained on 
plot 10, which deserves the best attention of the practical agriculturist. It 
will be seen that, although the first cutting produced a heavy crop of clover 
seeds of by far the best quality of any of the experimental plots, the land 
was left in a better agricultural condition after the first cutting than where no 
manure at all was applied, and a much smaller weight of green clover seeds 
wrs reaped at first; for on plot 10 the second cutting yielded nearly five tons 
of green produce, in addition to the first, whereas the two unmanured plots, 
5 and 7, yielded only two tons fifteen hundi'ed weight of additional produce in 
the second cutting. The liberal supply of available potash and soluble phos- 
phates thus had the effect of greatly increasing the weight of the crop, im- 
proving its quality, and leaving the soil in a better agricultural condition for 

• the next crop. 

8. Again, it will be noticed that on plot 6, on which muriate of potash 
alone was employed, the second cutting weighed more than the second cut- 
tings of the other plots, except that of plot 10, where superphosphate was 
added to the potash-salt. It therefore appears that the beneficial effects of 
potash on soils so poor in this element as the land on which these experiments 
were tried, has a more permanently beneficial effect than some of the fertili- 
zing matters which were used on other plots. 

9. On the other hand, nitrate of soda unmistakably had a tendency to ex- 
haust the land ; for it will be noticed that on both the plots 1 and 9, on which 
nitrate of soda was used, the second cuttings weighed less than those of the 
unmanured plots. 

As already mentioned, the nitrate of soda on plots 1 and 9 encouraged the 
growth of very coarse and inferior rye-grass, which completely smothered the 
clover plant. 

When I saw the experimental field late in the autumn of 1867, after har- 
vest, the contrast in the appearance of the various experimental plots was most 
striking. While the land on plots 1 and 9 appeared quite burned up and 
exhausted, and scarcely any clover was visible, the potash plots could be 
readily distinguished by a dark green color and healthy look of the remaining 
herbage, in which clover predominated. 

We may thus learn from these experiments that nitrate of soda alone, or 
even in conjunction with superphosphate, should not be used as a top-dressing 
for artificial grasses on very poor sandy soils, like the soil of the experimental 
field, inasmuch as nitrates hasten the exhaustion of the potash naturally 
l^resent in such soils in very small proportions. Indeed, nitrate of soda, and 
in a minor degree, ammoniacal salts, are the worst artificial manures that can 
be used under such circumstances. It may be further observed, that no just 
estimate can be formed of the real value of a special manure if no account be 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 65 

taken of the condition in which the land is left after the crop has been 
removed from it. This is not the first time that I have noticed this tendency 
of nitrate of soda to produce rapid exhaustion of naturally poor soils, and I 
would therefore strongly recommend farmers to abstain from the employment 
of it as top-dressing for grass or corn crops which are intended to be grown 
on naturally poor, sandy soils. 

The following simple method for breaking down bones has been recom- 
mended : 

DISSOLVIKG BONES. f-. 

Bones may be dissolved or broken down by taking a box or hogshead, 
and covering the bottom about two inches deep with ashes and lime mixed 
— one part of lime to two of ashes. The lime should be newly slaked and 
mixed with the ashes, both dry ; then put in a layer of bones, then two or 
three inches of lime and ashes again. Fill up in this way to about eight 
inches of the top, and then fill out with clean ashes on the compound and wet 
it gradually until the whole mass is thoroughly saturated, but not so as to 
drain. Let it stand at least six months, and when wanted for use take it out, 
fork it over, pick out all the bones that are not soft, and save them for the 
next batch, and then pulverize and mix the ingredients well together. It 
makes one of the strongest and best fertilizers in use, and when composted 
with fine manures is admii'able for top-dressing grass lands. 

The more ready way of dissolving bones is by the use of sulphuric acid. 
To every hundred pounds of bones about fifty or sixty of acid is taken. If 
bone dust is used, from twenty-five to forty-five pounds of acid. The acid 
must be mixed with two or three times its bulk of water, because if applied 
strong it would burn and blacken the bones without dissolving them. 

The bones are placed in a tub, and a portion of the previously diluted acid 
poured upon them. After standing a day another portion may be poured on 
and finally the remaining portion on the third day, if they are not already 
dissolved. The mass should be often stirred. 

Dr. J. F. Hodges of Belfast, at a meeting of the Chemico Agricultural 
Society of Ulster, recommended the farmers to adopt the following plan: 
Place in a wooden trough or tub, the bones, broken into as small pieces as 
possible, and pour upon them one-third of their weight of boiling water, and, 
having steamed the mass so as to render the bones completely moist, add one- 
third of the weight of the bones of sulphuric acid and common vitriol of the 
bleacher, and mix the materials completely, by stirring them, by means of a 
wooden shovel or old spade. The mixture may be conveniently made in an 
old sugar hogshead, and should be allowed to remain some weeks previous 
to being used. It may be mixed, if necessary, with dry peat, mold, or refuse 
charcoal, or with sawdust ; but lime should not be added to it. By carefully 
following these directions, the farmer may obtain a compound of high fertiliz- 
ing value, and much superior to many of the specimens of dissolved bones 



66 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

offered for sale. The addition of slacked lime and soap-boilers refuse, which 
some persons occasionally use, should be avoided. By employing the bones 
as described, the manure will be found to contain a large amount of soluble 
phosphate, which very few of the advertised manures afford. 

ASHES 

are valuable in eradicating mosses, and furnishing food for grasses, and are 
worth at least twenty-five cents a bushel for most of our grass lands. 

LIMB 

is of great service to some soils. Six years ago I limed an old side hill 
meadow, mossed over and not producing. It was applied at the rate of forty 
bushels per acre, and the annual crop of grass has ever since been good. 

I am inclined to think that good old pastures produce a better quality of 
milk than those recently re-seeded, and that it would be cheaper and better 
to renovate by top-dressing than to plow and seed. 

THE TKOUBLE WITH EECENTLT KE-SBEDED PASTURES 

is, the grass early in the season is apt to be rank, watery and more fleshy than 
the thick, fine herbage of old pastures. Considerable portions of it often get 
the start and soon become woody, and are rejected by stock. A recently 
re-seeded pasture will not bear cropping like one that is old. The coarser 
varieties of grasses are so rank as to crowd out the smaller and finer grasses, 
which are the most valuable for the production of milk. The feed in old pas- 
tures springs up earlier and lasts longer than on grounds recently re-seeded. 

MILK-PRODUCING GRASSES. 

White clover, wire-grass, {poa compressa,) and June or Kentucky blue- 
grass are valuable for producing milk ; they are indigenous to most dairy 
soils, and are generally abundant in old pastures, where they seem to thrive 
best. The character of food a cow eats has a greater influence on the quality 
of milk she yields than many imagine. 

During the season of drouths, when the cows begin to eat the tufts and 
portions of pasture that have been rejected or left to grow up high and rank, 
I have found the quality of milk so depreciated that it took from twelve to 
thirteen pounds of milk, and in some instances more, to make one of cheese. 
We may perhaps get more bulk of grass by plowing and re-seeding, and yet 
obtain poorer results in milk than from the old, thick sward that has been 
broken up. One great source of failure and decline of grass in old pastures, 
is over-stocking, as I have already remarked. The lands are crowded to their 
utmost capacity year after year and receiving scarcely any attention, must 
succumb at last. 

Again, weeds are allowed to go to seed and get possession of the soil, and 
where they thus overrun the ground and destroy the grasses, doubtless the best 
course to adopt is to plow and re-seed ; but the true course is to pay attention 



Pbactical Daiey Husbandry. 67 

to pasture lands in season, giving them an occasional top-dressing, scarifying 
the surface in spring, and sowing seeds here and there upon patches that 
begin to fail. As a top-dressing 

SAWDUST, 

in which the liquid manures have been absorbed, applied in fall or spring, 
gives great vigor and growth to grasses. It can be spread over the surface 
in a finely divided state, and is in condition to be available to plants. 

Road-scrapings and composts of muck, earth, and manures applied in the 
fall, and pulverized over the surface with a brush harrow, together with the 
use of ashes, plaster and lime, all of which are available to farmers, will be 
found of service in keeping up a permanent pasture. And it is believed, by 
taking a few acres annually and treating them with manure, better results 
will be obtained at a less cost than by plowing and re-seeding. 

I may remark that, in the use of barn-yard manures, fresh cow-dung ought 
not to be used on pastures for the dairy, as it produces grass distasteful to 
dairy stock, and some claim it to be the cause of abortions. 

The more common method of improving pastures and meadows in the 
dairy district of Central New York is by 

THE USE OF GTPSUM (sULPHATE OF LIMe). 

It is very extensively employed by the farmers of Herkimer and the adjoin- 
ing counties, and with the most marlced results. In the Valley of the Mohawk 
there are mills for grinding the stone into powder. The stone is taken from 
the quarries in Western New York, and is transported in boats on the Erie 
Canal in large quantities during the summer, and in this way the mills are 
supplied. The grinding is mostly done in winter, in spring and early summer. 

It is applied to lands usually in early spring and up to the middle of June, 
and sometimes as late as July, though for meadows an earlier application must 
be made to be of much benefit to the crop of standing grass. 

Many farmei'S commence hauling their gypsum in wintei-, depositing it in 
small box-like houses, located in difierent parts of the farm, where it is con- 
venient for an early application in spring, when the roads are bad, and thus ad- 
vantage can be taken of sowing or scattering it upon the land at the earliest 
moment after the snow is ofi" the ground. Others living within a few miles 
of the mills haul and spread directly upon the land during the spring or early 
part of June. 

It is sown either by machine or hand. Machine sowing is best, as it 
scatters it more evenly over the surface, a matter of considerable importance 
in the application of mineral fertilizers of this description. One of the best 
machines for the purpose with which we are acqua'nted is Seymoue's Improved 
Plaster Sower. 

It can be used not only for sowing plaster, but many other fertilizers 
besides, such as guano, bone dust, ashes, salt, 'im3, &c., at the rate of any 



68 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



quantity per acre as desired. It will sow them as well when damp as when 
dry, and as the machine is light, simple, not liable to get out of repair, not 
expensive and sows rapidly, dairy farmers will find its use economical. The 
machine is represented in the accompanying cut. 




THE QUANTITY OF GYPSUM USED PEE ACRE 

differs considerably with different farmers — from one hundred to two hundred 
or more pounds to the acre. Some sow upon the land only every second year, 
taking half the pastures or meadows every year alternately. It has been 
estimated that in Herkimer county, a third more feed is obtained from the land, 
one year with another, by the judicious use of gypsum. However this may 
be, the increase in grass from its use, both in meadows and pastures, is very 
considerable, and dairymen regard " plaster," as it is termed, as one of the 
important adjuncts in dairying. It is certain that our pastures are kept 
fresher and greener by the use of gypsum, and a neglect in its application for 
any considerable time is made apparent in the milk pail, and decrease of the 
cheese product. 

Gypsum in its natural state is a compound of sulphuric acid, with lime and 
two equivalents of water, and has the following composition in one hundred 
parts : 

Lime 32.56 

Sulphuric acid 46 . 51 

Water 20.93 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 69 

It is sometimes artificially made by pouring sulphuric acid upon quicklime. 
The fertilizing power of gypsum, when used in conjunction with animal ma- 
nures, is very apparent in the growth and richness of the vegetation produced, 
and experiments have placed its value beyond a doubt, in the cultivation of 
the artificial grasses, and especially such plants as sainfoin, lucerne and clover. 
-It is found to answer best when spread in moist, damp weather. 

THE VALUE OF GYPSUM 

in agriculture has been the subject of great diversity of opinion ; due in part, 
no doubt, to a want of proper observation of the circumstances in which its 
application has or has not been successful. Upon some soils it is said to be 
of no appreciable benefit, while there is considerable difierence observable in 
its efiects upon the dairy soils of New York in diiferent seasons. 

There are various theories put forth in explanation of its action, and the 
question is not altogether a settled one. Lieeig thus speaks of it : — " The 
evident influence of gypsum upon the growth of grasses, the striking fertility 
and luxuriance of a meadow upon which it is strewed, depend in some mea- 
sure upon its fixing in the soil the ammonia of the atmosphere, which would 
otherwise be volatilized with the water which evaporates. 

" The carbonate of ammonia contained in rain water is decomposed by 
gypsum, in precisely the same manner as in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac, 
soluble sulphate of ammonia, and carbonate of lime ; and this salt of ammonia 
possessing no volatility, is consequently retained in the soil." One hundred 
pounds of gypsum, Liebig calculates, would be equal in ammoniacal fertiliz- 
ing energy, to what would result from six thousand five hundred and twenty 
pounds of horses' urine. 

Sir Humphrey Davy held the opinion that the influence of gypsum on 
clover and other plants of this description is due to their containing naturally 
a large proportion of sulphate of lime, and consequently required it in greater 
abundance than all soils are capable of furnishing. He examined the ashes 
of these plants, and found that they afibrded considerable quantities of gyp- 
sum, which substance, he thought, might probably be intimately combined as 
a necessary part of their woody fiber ; and he believed that when gypsum 
failed to produce a good result, it would be found that the soil naturally con- 
tained so much of the salt that its artificial supply was unnecessary. 

LOCATION' OF PASTURES. 

Pastures, it may be remarked, should be located upon uplands, or well- 
drained soils. This is of great practical importance. The grass upon swampy 
or wet lands not only yields an inferior quality of milk, but milk often highly 
charged with the elements of putrefaction. When pastures are wholly or mostly 
composed of low or wet lands, the herds are liable to become more or less dis- 
eased. Foot-rot, bloody murrain, and febrile diseases are not unfrequent. I 
have known bloody murrain to be so virulent on such lands that they had to be 



70 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



■ 



abandoned; but by under-draining the land and returning to pasture the 
stock was rendered healthy. 

The excessive drain on the animal system in the production of milk, has 
an important influence on this class of animals, rendei'ing them less able to 
withstand disease than those that are not yielding milk ; hence they require 
more favorable conditions in their management than other stock. 

DEFICIENT DRAINAGE OF PASTURES. 

In some remarks on this subject the London Field has the following : 
"There can be no doubt, for experience has proved it, that one of the 
chief causes of periodical disease is a want of drainage. In this respect our 
tillage lands are generally better managed than grass lands, for many imagine 
that pastures do not require under-drainage ; but this is essentially a mistake. 
On some lands scouring takes place periodically ; othei-s are liable to produce 
splenic apoplexy, black leg, and red water. Now, however difierent these may 
be in their characteristics. Dr. Voelcker, in his investigations, has thrown 
much light on the subject. It Avould appear that ' Scour is partly caused by 
a too rapid growth of grass, and its consumption, either green or converted 
into hay, while in an unripe state — that is, while containing an excess of saline 
and nitrogenous ingredients, and a lack of sugar.' And this is especially the 
case on imperfectly drained lands. Again, splenic apoplexy, which was very 
frequent during last autumn, was owing, in a great measure, to the rapid 
growth of grass from some warm showers in the autumn after the very dry- 
summer. ' The plant found in the soil an excess of mineral matter ; tlie ani- 
mal eating such rapidly-formed and raw food was affected, the blood rendered 
viscid, and inflammation of the spleen ensued.' Even the liver-rot in sheep 
is caused hy a rank state of grass upon undrained or partially-drained lands,- 
and Professor Simonds, in his investigations, shows that the conditions 
causing this terrible disorder only occur during two months of the year, and 
generally from rank vegetation. Professor Coleman, in a paper lately read 
at the Central Farmers' Club, states : — ' As two instances of very fatal dis- 
eases which arise from unhealthy grass, I may mention black leg and red 
water. Black leg invariably attacked animals grazing on some peaty, swampy 
pastures, and disappeared when the same were thoroughly drained.' It may 
be objected to this, that these diseases may also be found on land that has 
been drained. But though this may be so in many cases, the fact still remains 
that in almost all cases where grass land is unhealthy for stock, it is because 
an excess of moisture impoverishes the herbage, and during the summer 
causes a too luxuriant and rapid growth." 

The importance of draining wet lands is so well understood, that I need 
only briefly allude to it here. A few years since I paid a visit to John John- 
ston, the great farmer of Geneva, the pioneer of draining in this country, and 
who, it is said, has had more practical experience in draining than any man 
in America. He said to me that in his first efforts he had made great mi& 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 71 

takes ; that all drains should be laid directly up the incline, instead of trying 
to cut off springs by running the ditches horizontally or diagonally across the 
inclines ; that it was not necessary to drain land when stagnant water stood 
more than four feet below the surface, but that when water stood within two 
feet of the surface, land is benefited by drainage. A soil filled with water 
cannot be heated downward, as experiments have shown that ice will remain 
unmelted in the bottom of a vessel filled with water, which has been made to 
boil by the application of heat to the surface. 

Under-drained soils are heated by the warm rains sinking into them. Mr. 
Johnston said that he would not build drains of stone, even if a supply were 
found on the farm, if he could get tiles at reasonable cost, because the excava- 
tions for stone drains would require greater labor, and such drains were liable 
to fill with mud or dirt, especially in soft lands. He would lay drains at least 
four feet deej?, in order to secure their full benefit in heavy rains, and to place 
them beyond the reach of subsoil jdIows, moles and roots. 

In order to prevent obstructions, drains should have a continuous fall, and 
this could be easily ascertained by stretching a line and measuring the depth 
of each tile from it. There was no danger of uniting the tiles too closely ; 
the joints should not have over a quarter of an inch space, and ground tan- 
bark or shavings are a suitable covering to the joints. 

LAYING DOWN PASTURES. 

In seeding for permanent pastures, a greater variety of seeds should be 
sown than is commonly employed. The grasses are evidently social in their 
character, and delight to congregate together. From a single sod in a rich, 
natural pasture as many as thirty varieties have been counted. If we mix 
the varieties of early and late blooming, we get not only a succession for feed, 
but also a heavier growth upon the land. The mixture of varieties recom- 
mended by Mr. Flint is excellent, and may be advantageously adopted. He 
recommends for seeding the following proportions: 

Sweet-scented vernal, flowering in April and May 1 pound 

Meadow fescue, May and June 2 " 

Meadow Foxtail " " 3 " 

Orcliard-grass " " 6 " 

June-grass " " 4 " 

Italian rye-grass, June 4 " 

Perennial rye-grass " 6 " 

Perennial clover " 3 " 

Timothy, June and July 3 " 

Red-top, " " 2 " 

Rough-stalked meadow, June and July 2 " 

White clover, May to September 5 " 

Total 40 pounds 

To this we should add, blue-grass {Poa compressa,) three pounds, and Al- 
sike clover, three pounds. 



72 Practical Dairy Huhbanbrt. 

alsike clovek 

has only been recently introduced into this country, but from all the accounts 
we get of it, it would seem to be extremely valuable as a pasture grass ; more 
productive than white clover, and quite as hardy, highly relished by stock, 
and, like white clover, is adapted to the production of milk of good quality. 
Mr. RicHAED Gibson, of New York Mills, N. Y., who has for some years 
past managed with great success the noted thoroughbred herd of Walcott 
& Campbell, gives the following communication to the New York Central 
Farmers' Club as the result of his observation and experience, both in this 
country and England, in relation to 

PASTURE GRASSES. 

He says the objects sought are, to get our pastures as thickly covered with 
as good a quaility of herbage as our soil is capable of growing, and to have 
them bear stocking early in the spring to withstand drought, and to continue 
to yield a " good bite " all through the season. 

To accomplish this, it Avill therefore be necessary for us to ascertain which 
of the cultivated grasses are best adapted to our particular soils, and in what 
proportion they should be sown. 

I shall not attempt to recommend a particular mixture of seeds, but will 
merely give a general description of some of our best pasture grasses, and 
the quantity of seed per acre generally sown in mixture with other grasses, 
and leave each one to select such as may seem best suited for his soil and 
purpose. If we take them in alphabetical order, we shall find first, agrostis 
vulgaris, a very common grass in some districts. 

* Agrostis Vulgaris, or red-top, is well suited for permanent pastiires, but 
it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry — grows in any soil, moist or 
dry — and stands our hot seasons well. I think it is over-estimated by most 
farmers, and worth more for lawns than for pastures — 2 to 3 pounds. 

Anthoxanthum odoratum, or sweet vernal grass (6 pounds,) should be 
introduced into all mixtures for permanent pastures, on account of its early 
spring growth, as it is also one of the latest in the autumn — luxuriates most 
in rich and cool soils — | pound. 

Alopeeurus pratensis, or meadow fox-tail (5^ pounds). This is one of our 
very best pasture grasses, being quite early, much liked by cattle, and with- 
stands our hot summers without burning. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, 
and rather strong soil (1^ to 2^ pounds). 

Dactylis glomerata, or orchard grass, (11 pounds), is in my opinion the 
most valuable grass we have, and should enter largely into all mixtures in- 
tended for permanent pasture. It is one of our earliest, as well as most 
nutritious and productive grasses, and is exceedingly palatable to stock of all 

* The numbers immediately after the name of grass indicate the average 'weight of the seed per bushel. 
The numbers after the description the number of pounds generally sown per acre in mixture with other 

grasses. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. ' 73 

kinds. As a pasture grass it should be cropped close (four to five pounds). 

Festuca duriuscula or hard fescue (9^ pounds). This is not so productive 
as some of our jDasture grasses, being one of the fine and dwarf-growing 
varieties, still it is desirable as thriving well in dry situations, and with- 
standing drought better than many other kinds (2 pounds). Of the numer- 
ous varieties of the fescues. 

Festuca Pratensis, or meadow fescue (13 pounds), is the most desirable, 
and it is one of our best grasses, producing a large bulk of very nutritious 
grass, highly relished by cattle, does not attain its full growth until three 
years from the time of sowing; prefers soils of good quality (3|- pounds). 

Lolium Italicum, Italian rye-grass (15 pounds). Occupies the same posi- 
tion among grasses in England as timothy does here. Is remarkable for its 
early maturity and rapid reproduction. I have not succeeded in gi'owing it 
satisfactorily here, but I think it can be done, as it succeeds well in the dry 
Australian climate. If it can be grown here it will become one of our 
standard grasses (6 to 8 pounds). 

Phleum Pratense^ or timothy (44 pounds). Is so well known that it 
needs no description. More valuable for meadows than pastures, as it will 
not bear close grazing (3 pounds). 

Poa pratensis, or blue grass (IS-J pounds). Is common in most sections of 
the country, but prefers limestone lands. Starts early in the spring and 
remains green until checked by frosts (1^ pounds). 

Poa triv talis, or rough- stalked meadow grass (16 pounds). Much like the 
blue grass in appearance, except that the one has a smooth and the other a 
rough sheath. It is one of our most valuable grasses, highly nutritive, and 
both cattle, horses and sheep are very fond of it (2 to 4 pounds). 

The above are some of the most valuable of the grasses ; the list might be 
extended, and I should always recommend sowing in a mixture with above 
grasses, red clover and trifoliwn repens, or white clover, say 3 or 4 pounds 
of each per acre, 

Mr. Geokge Sinclair wrote a very instructive essay on " Grasses," in 
which he says, after advancing some reasons why a variety of grasses should 
be sown, " There is another important law in the natural economy of the 
grasses which governs all those species of most value to the farmer. It is this, 
that individual plants of the same species will not grow close to each other 
for any length of time, for however thickly planted from seed in one or two sea- 
sons, intermediate plants decay and leave vacant spaces, which are soon filled 
up with spurious grasses, weeds or moss ; but when a variety of different 
species adapted to the soil are mixed together, they grow close, form a 
dense bottom and continue permanent." 

That is just what we want in this climate, " a dense bottom," to withstand 
our scorching sun and dry summers, and to obtain which we must have a 
variety of grasses. 



H Practical Dairy Husbandry. WM \ 

Just one instance, quoted from the same authority, to illustrate how closely 
plants will grow. " A rich natural pasture at Endsleigh, Devonshire, Eng., 
contained tAventy-tAVO different species of grasses on something less than the 
space of a square foot of the best fattening pastures ;" and in a turf one foot* 
square of a very old pasture in Lincolnshire, on having the soil carefully 
washed from the roots of the herbage, and the individual plants of which it 
consisted separated, their number amounted to one thousand and ninety, while 
in a pasture formed of rye-grass and clover, only seventy-five plants were 
found per square foot." 

In seeding, whether it be for pastures or meadows, too great pains cannot 
be taken to have a good seed bed. In this latitude (43°), and on most of our 
dairy soils, I prefer 

SEEDING IN SPRING, 

as the young plants then have longer time to establish themselves before cold 
weather. However, location, the character of the soils, and circumstances, 
will always have controlling influence on this point. For spring seeding the 
land should be plowed in the fall, and unless mellow and in good tilth, it 
should be plowed again in the sjDring. Then, unless the land is very rich from 
previous manuring, well rotted manure should be spread upon the surface and 
worked in with the cultivator until the surface is finely pulverised, and for 
coA^ering the seed, a light harrow or brush should be used that they may not 
be covered too deeply. The great point in successful seeding is to have the 
land in good heart and fine tilth. 

SOILING. 

There is another system of management adopted by some with great suc- 
cess. When lands are expensive and a considerable portion of the land is 
arable, the rougher or broken lands, and such as are not easily cultivated, are 
put into permanent pasture, and a system of half soiling is adopted. 

The plan of whole soiling, or keeping the cows in the stable and yard, has 
been strongly advocated by some, and there are many- points about it that 
commend it to favor. But while it seems to haA^e been successfully practised 
by a fcAV persons, whose lands are located near cities and are of limited ex- 
tent, and are in consequence valuable, still the system is not generally adoj^ted 
among the dairymen of this country or Great Britain. 

The profits of feeding cows wholly by soiling instead of pasturing, must 
depend of course upon the market value of land in different localities. Where 
land is cheap and a given quantity of food can be furnished cheaper by pas- 
turage than for the labor iuA'olved in soiling, it is evident pasturage will be 
preferred. 

But the system of part soiling, as now adopted by our best dairymen, is 
for the purpose of keeping up a flow of milk during the hot, dry weather, 
when grass in pasture depreciates in quantity and value. European writers 
have stated that there are 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. *Jb 

SIX DISTINCT ADVANTAGES 

to be obtained from the practice of soiling : 

I. It saves land. 

II. It saves fencing. 

III. It economizes food. 

IV. It keeps the cattle in better condition and greater comfort. 

V. It produces more milk. 

VI. It increases immensely the quantity and quality of the manures. 
The second and third of these propositions are so self-evident that I need 

not discuss them here ; but of the other four I may allude briefly to the argu- 
ments urged by the advocates of this system. And first, how does it save land? 

Cattle that are turned to pastures, they say, waste as much and often 
more food than they consume. This is done in various ways — by treading it 
down ; by dunging ; by staling ; by blowing upon it ; by lying down upon 
it ; and again, when there is a flush of feed, by a portion of the grass not 
being touched by stock, thereby becoming rank, old and woody, and thus 
going to waste. 

The late Mr, Quinct of Massachusetts, who was an earnest advocate of 
the system, and who practiced it with great success upon his farm, says he was 
enabled by soiling to keep twenty cows on the product of seventeen acres of 
his land, but which under the old system required fifty acres. 

European writers make the difierence between the two systems (soiling 
and pasturing,) as one acre to seven. But, taking Mr. Quincy's maximum 
quantity, which he says was never at any time required to be increased for 
the full supply of food for the number of cows named, it will be seen that 
the number of acres needed through the soiling season for fifty cows would 
be forty-two and a-half acres. This, it will be seen, is quite a saving, as it 
would have taken, according to his statement, one hundred and twenty-five 
acres of this land for the same stock at pasture. 

The objection that the constant plowing of land under the soiling system 
would soon exhaust it, is answered by the argument that crops that are not 
permitted to go to seed make no heavy drafts on the soil ; besides, by the 
practice of soiling an abundance of manure is at all times at command, and 
hence it is concluded that by no system of farming can land be enriched at so 
little cost. 

Under the fourth proposition, that it keeps the cattle in better condition, 
it is contended that animals kept under this system are healthier and not so 
liable to accident. 

HEALTH OP soiled STOCK. 

The experiences of the English, as well as that of Mr. Quincy, seem to 
show that stock provided regularly with an abundance of food, with a plenti- 
ful supply of pure water, and otherwise properly cared for, are seldom essen- 
tially ill ; seldom miscarry or meet with those accidents incident to herds that 



76 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

are roaming over pastures, often subjected to hunger and thirst, drinking 
muddy and impure water, driven and worried by dogs, breaking down and 
jumping over fences in quest of food, or otherwise gratifying their propen- 
sity for mischief. They are also more protected against noxious weeds that 
often injure the milk as well as the animal. 

The soiling system does not necessarily confine the animals wholly to the 
stable. A yard is provided in which rubbing posts are set, and where shade 
is insured. Into this inclosure they are turned for several hours during the 
day, and where they can take all the exercise necessary for health. 

Those who have practiced soiling milch cows, seem to be unanimous in 
their statements that more milk is thus produced than by pasturage. The 
arguments proceed upon the principle that by soiling an abundance of nutrir 
trious, palatable food is always at command, whereby the flow of milk may 
be kept up to the highest point throughout the season. Experience teaches 
us what high feeding is capable of doing in the production of milk, and other 
things being equal, the argument cannot be charged as wholly theoretical. 

Kf THE SAVING OF MANUKES 

there can be no doubt but an immense advantage is gained. Mr. Qtjinct 
estimates the value of manures made from soiling to be equal to the whole 
cost of labor employed to take charge of his stock. 

KINDS OF FOOD TO BE USED IN" SOILING. 

I have now gone over the chietpoints in favor of this system. I can only 
briefly touch upon the kinds of food to be used and the order of their sue- 
cession. The English speak of lucerne, clover, peas, cabbage, &c., as used 
for soiling. Mr. Quincy relied chiefly upon but four kinds of green crops 
for carrying on the system. 1st. grass ; 2d. oats ; 3d. Indian corn ; and 4th. cab- 
bages. He used grass for the first month of the soiling season. This was 
cut from his earliest pieces, patches here and there about his buildings, and 
the sides of a private road leading through the farm. 

He gives as the result of his experience, that one acre of good clover is 
sufficient for six head of grown cattle from the twentieth of May to the 
twentieth of June. Oats are made to be the food for July, one acre being 
sufficient for every four head of cattle soiled. The oats are sown at the 
earliest moment possible, and generally aflPord a good cut by the first of July. 
But when oats alone are depended upon without the aid of any other crop, 
he advises that one-half the destined quantity of land should be sown as 
early as the seed can go into the ground, and the other half a week or more 
later, that the crop may have some succession. 

Indian corn is relied upon for the month of August ; and during the 
month of September reliance is placed upon the grass from the second crop, 
from those acres in which soiling was efi'ected in the month of June. The 
grass of the second crop, he says, will generally enable the farmer to soil to 
the fifteenth of October if his grass land be in good heart. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 11 

From the fifteenth of October till the time cattle are housed, reliance 
is placed upon the tops of winter vegetables, such as carrots and turnips, 
together with cabbages. This food is distributed in racks under cover, or in 
the barn, about six times each day in due proportion. 

I do not propose in this place to discuss the minutiae — the time of sowing 
and best manner of raising crops — as my object has been merely to give a 
general outline of the system. It undoubtedly has great advantages under 
certain circumstances, and the plans of barns which I have given, are arrang- 
ed so that it could be in whole or in part adopted. 

HALr-SOILING. 

"Now the half-soiling to which I have alluded is managed in this way (and I 
give simply an outline of practice adopted by some of our leading dairymen 
in Central New York. My description is the management of Dr. Wight, 
whose location is near Utica, N. Y.) : 

Dr. Wight has had some experience in " part-soiling," during several 
years past, and he says he is satisfied that when the soil is well adapted to 
the system, as it is on the Mohawk flats, it is far more profitable than the old 
method of grazing. His practice has been to set apart about twenty-five 
acres of pasture for fifty cows. Commencing about the middle of May he 
lets the cows to pasture a few hours each day, still giving them what they 
will eat of the eai'ly cut fine hay, of the previous year's crop, and which has 
been cured and stored especially for this purpose. Then he soon begins to 
cut some rye, sown early and thickly the previous autumn on rich soil. The 
advantage of rye is, that it is fit for feeding earlier than any other soiling 
food. But he feeds it no longer when he can get early clover, as it is too 
light a crop to be profitable. Early clover is then fed twice a day, as long as 
it remains green and succulent. Next late, and large clover, followed some- 
times by oats, sown thickly on rich soil, and cut just before they begin to 
head. Oats are succeeded by sowed corn, the seed having been drilled in at 
different times, and this he continues to feed till frost comes, exchanging 
awhile with the second crop of small clover, which furnishes as much feed as 
the first crop. 

He generally turns the cows upon such after-feed as he does not wish to 
cut for a second crop of hay, both for the purpose of saving the feed and to 
benefit the next year's crop of hay ; as a large growth of after-math left on 
the ground of the Mohawk intervales, injures the succeeding crop very much. 
By pursuing this course, he says he finds three acres will carry as many cows 
through the year as four acres treated in the usual way. 

The expense in labor is considerably more, but that is counterbalanced by 
the increase in manure. Cows fed thus, he affirms, will at least equal if not 
surpass those kept in the usual way, in both quantity and quality of milk, 
and the dairyman, by adopting this method, finds his profits enhanced nearly 
one-fourth. 



78 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Full soiling he has never practiced, as he cannot overcome the prejudice 
of feeling it to be better for the health and comfort of stock to roam freely 
in the open air a considerable portion of the time. 

ME. BIENIE's plan OF SOILING. 

In 1869 I was at the residence of Mr. William Biknie, of Springfield, 
Mass. Mr. Bienie has a reputation as a breeder of Ayrshire stock, and he 
gave me the outlines of his management for a dairy of twenty cows, which 
are kept upon fifty acres of land in the immediate vicinity of Springfield, the 
milk going to milk dealers for consumption in the city. 

Upon this farm the practice of soiling has been adopted for the last ten 
years, and the results have been eminently satisfactory. Out of the fifty 
acres there are ten acres which make up a rough, broken pasture, upon which 
the cows are allowed to feed daily and take their necessary exercise. In 
addition to the ten acres of rough pasture land, seven and one-half acres are 
employed for crops, in soiling, as follows : — Rye, one and one-half acres ; 
clover, two acres ; and sowed corn, four acres. 

He commences cutting and feeding the rye about the 1st of June, and by 
the time that is fed ofi" the clover is ready. The clover is cut over three 
times during the season. For ten days, while the hay is being harvested, the 
cows are fed from the meadows. Then comes the sowed corn which, with 
the after-feed from the meadows, finishes the remainder of the season. 

As soon as the rye is cut and fed, the ground is immediately plowed and 
prepared for cabbage ; and from this crop a considerable profit is realized, the 
sound, hard heads being sold, while the loose leaves and soft cabbage are fed 
to the cows on mornings during frosty weather in the fall, when grass begins 
to depreciate. 

Usually the plowed land has a four years' rotation, being then seeded in 
connection with an oat crop, and with the following proportion of seeds to 
the acre : Clover and herd's grass, one peck each, and red top, one bushel. 

Now, here are seventeen and a-half acres, five and a-half only of which 
are under the plow, that give an abundance of food during the pasturing 
season for twenty cows. Under the system of pasturage alone it would take 
at least forty acres to carry the cows through the same period ; and on many 
farms fifty acres would not suffice. 

It may be remarked that the rough, broken land of ten acres is of a poor 
character of soil, and does not afi"ord a large amount of food, so that proper 
allowances should be made on this account. 

The labor of feeding, he said, would amount to something ; but this is 
partly and perhaps wholly paid back in the greater quantity of milk yielded, 
the better health of stock and the saving of manures— this last being an im- 
portant item. 

Where lands are cheap we cannot expect the system of green soiling to 
pay, but where they are valuable and scarce the plan adopted by Mr. Bienik 
is suo-gestive, and will be found remunerative if properly conducted. 



t 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. -79 

RAISING AND FEEDING BOOTS. 

Mr. BiRNiE feeds largely of roots during the Avinter, of turnips and man- 
golds, each animal getting about one-half bushel per day. The turnips are 
fed during the early part of the winter, and the mangolds later. He gave me 
a statement of a crop of mangolds grown on two and one-half acres. The 
land had been prepared with the design of raising tobacco, but it was thought 
best to put it to mangolds. Thirteen cords of well rotted stable manure were 
hauled on, and the land plowed the 26th of April, and again the 7th of May. 
The ridges were made two feet apart, and fifteen hundred pounds of bones 
dissolved or broken down in sulphuric acid, together Avith sixteen bushels of 
coarse salt, were used as special fertilizers. Then about the 10th of May, seed 
of the long red variety was drilled in at the rate of six pounds per acre. On 
the 3d of June the plants were hoed the first time, and seven days after they 
were cultivated with the horse-hoe, followed by hand hoeing, thinned by 
drawing a hoe through, and the blank spaces filled by transplanting. In the 
first week of July the horse-hoe was again run through the rows, and the 
plants thinned out from eight to twelve inches apart — one plant in a place. 
On the 16th of July the horse-hoe was again used, which was the last 
cultivation employed, as the plants now generally covered the ground; but 
wherever vacancies occurred they were filled with cabbages. 

On the 15th of September the leaves were stripped to feed the cows, and 
eighteen two-horse wagon loads were taken from the piece before harvesting. 
At the time of harvesting twelve loads more of leaves were gathered and fed 
to the cows. He commenced to gather the crop on the 9th of October, 
finished on the 23d, and harvested seventy-six loads of roots, each load 
weighing tAventy-five hundred pounds, the whole crop amounting to three 
thousand one hundred and sixty-five bushels, besides four hundred heads of 
sound cabbages. The expense of this crop was estimated as follows : 

13 cords stable manure, at $6 per cord $78 00 

1,500 pounds vitriolized bones 18 75 

16 bushels salt 3 20 

Total for manures $99 95 

The labor employed was as folio avs : Men and teams five days in ploAving ; 
men's labor twelve days planting; twenty-five day's work cultivating in June; 
eleven days' work cultivating in August ; twenty-seven and a-half days' work 
in October, harvesting ; ten days, man and team, hauling and storing roots in 
the cellar, &c. 

As the price of labor varies at different seasons and in difierent places, I 
have not thought it worth while to set any special value upon it, but let each 
one figure the cost of labor to suit himself. 

The manures, it is evident, should not be wholly charged against the crop, 



80 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

as their influence extends over and benefits the land for other crops. The 
yield was a remarkably good one and shows what can be done by thorough 
cultivation. 

THE COMMON PLAN. 

Now, the usual system adopted by our dairy farmers is to rely mainly upon 
pasturage, and in giving a little extra food from green corn fodder, so as to 
meet the necessities of drought, or to help carry the stock along for about five 
weeks, say from the 20th of July to the 1st of September, when the animals 
are turned into the after-feed. Grass is usually most abundant during the 
early part of the season, and if pastures are not over-stocked up to the 
middle or latter part of July the herd may be carried through the balance of 
the season at little trouble and expense, by having a provision of forage from 
sowed corn. 

THE TIME FOB SOWING CORN 

for the summer soiling of milch cows is, for the latitude of Central New York, 
from the 1st to the 15th of June. The land should be heavily manured and 
the seed scattered thickly in drills, the rows say about two feet and a half 
apart and not to exceed three feet. I have experimented with this crop by 
sowing the seed broad-cast, planting in hills, and drilling in rows at various 
distances apart, and have uniformly found the best result when used in the 
way recommended. What we want to obtain is a heavy growth of tender, 
brittle stalks which will be readily consumed by stock with no waste. Thin 
seeding or drilling the rows too far apart will be apt to give the stalks 
considerable size, with a large amount of woody fiber, which the cows will 
not eat. 

The breadth of land to be sown must vary, of course, according to the 
quantity of food desired, but should not fall below an acre for every ten cows. 
It is true the season may be such that the whole may not be needed, but this 
will not result in loss, for if the stalks are cut, bound and shocked before frost, 
they may be cured, and will afford a large amount of valuable fodder for the 
cows in fall and early winter, when something better than hay is required for 
the animals in milk. 

On rich land, well manured and in good tilth for the seed, it is surprising 
what a large amount of nutritious food can be grown to the acre of this crop. 
It is admirably adapted as a milk food, not only giving quantity but quality, 
and if we take into account its adaptation to a variety of soils, and wide 
range of climate, its productiveness and the ease with which it may be culti- 
vated, there is not in the whole catalogue of forage plants one so valuable for 
the summer soiling of milch cows as Indian corn. 

In sowing some use the Western or Dent variety. It gives a larger yield 
than any other, but the stalks are apt to grow coarse and woody, and it is less 
nutritious than other kinds. In our own experience, sweet corn of the Ever- 
green variety has given the best results in milk. From the following 



■ 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



81 



ANALYSES OF DIFPEREISTT VABIETIES OF CORN 

it will be seen that sweet com is comparatively rich in caseine, albumen, and 
sugar, while the j)er centage of fiber is much less than that of other varieties : 





Ohio 
Dent. 


White 
Flint. 


Eight s^eet 
Rowed cokn. 
Yellow. 


TuscA- 

KORA. 


Pop 
Cokn. 


Buel's 
Button 


Starch 


41.85 

4.62 

3.88 

2.64 

1.32 

5.40 

21.36 

10.00 

10.00 


40.34 
7.69 
4.68 
3.40 
0.50 
2.90 

18.01 
8.30 

14.00 


30.29 
5.60 
3.90 
6.00 
2.30 
4.61 

26.80 
5.20 

13.40 


11.60 
4.62 
3.60 

14.30 

5.84 
24.82 
11.24 
14.62 
10.32 


48.90 

8.72 

2.32 

2.00 

14.00 

10.00 

13.68 


46.90 

9.24 
6.96 
5.02 
2.50 

2.25 

8.50 

7.02 

12.12 


36.06 
5.00 
3 44 


Gluten 


Oil 


Albumen 


4.42 
1.92 
1.30 

18.50 
7.25 

15.02 


Caseine 


Dextrine 


Fiber 


Sugar and Ext. Matter 


Water 






101.07 


99.82 


98.10 


100.96 


99.62 


100.51 


92.91 



No dairyman, looking for a profitable return from his herd should neglect 
to provide a patch of sowed corn for soiling in connection with pasturage 
during the hot, dry weather of August and September. If the seed is put in 
early a portion of the crop will be fit to cut in the latter part of July, when 
pastures begin to fail. Cows should not be allowed to shrink in their milk 
for want of nutritious food at this season of the year, for when once the flow 
of milk is checked from this cause it will be difficult to get them back again 
into a " milky habit." 

An abundance of food for soiling, in the way referred to, will make a 
larger difference in the receipts than most men imagine who are accustomed 
to depend solely on pasturage for summering the herd. And in case of drought 
the satisfaction of knowing that your stock is amply provided for, more than 
compensates for growing this special crop, to say nothing of the money 
receipts coming from its use. 

MEADOWS — ENGLISH SYSTEM. 

As to the management of meadow lands and the establishment of perma- 
nent meadows there is great diversity of opinion among dairy farmers. The 
English, who have studied these questions and who have had long experience 
upon a soil and in a climate particularly well adapted to permanent meadows, 
do not believe in setting apart much land for this purpose. In my tour 
through the dairy districts of England, I was often surprised at the small 
quantity of land put down in permanent meadows upon dairy farms. They 
believe that grass is most profitable when it is to be cropped by cattle ; hence 
the area of pastures is extended while that which we understand by meadow 
lands is reduced to the narrowest limits. 

THE ENGLISH DAIRY FARM 

may be said to be divided up into pastures and arable lands. Upon their 
cultivated fields much of the hay come& from a regular rotation after grain 
6 



82 • Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

crops ; the field is mowed once or twice and is then broken up for a crop of 
wheat. Various mixtures are sown, and large yields often the result. I have 
seen meadows on what is termed the four or five course shift, where the first 
crop of hay would be at least three tons per acre. I was upon a splendid 
meadow of this kind in Devonshire, where the seeding of the previous year 
had been as follows : Eight pounds red clover, two pounds white clover, four 
pounds trefoil, and three pecks of Italian rye-grass. This is not given as 
an illustration of the best mixture, but rather as a specimen of what 
some of our American farmers would call heavy seeding. Lands often 
get more and a greater variety of seeds. The English say they can get more 
profit by cultivating their arable lands, raising grain, and feeding cows when 
not in milk, with cut straw, turnips and oil meal, instead of keeping them 
wholly on hay. And the profits of English dairy farms, I may remark, are 
very much larger than with us. Their permanent meadows are kept up by a 
system of mowing and cropping alternately. Ground bones and phosphatic 
manures are used to some extent as a top-dressing, but barn-yard manures are 
for the most part employed for the grain and root crops. I am inclined to 
think that 

A SYSTEM OF ROTATION IN CEOPS, 

in which the land should lie in meadow from four to eight years, according to 
the character of the soil, would be much more satisfactory in results than the 
attempt to make permanent meadows over a large area which, from its 
extent, cannot be properly top-dressed with manures furnished from the farm 
except at long intervals. And, although grain farming alone as a specialty 
cannot hold out a promise of any considerable gains on many of our Eastern 
soils, still in connection with the dairy, by which the straw and coarse fodder 
can be utilized and the land, by rotation, be made to produce better crops of 
hay, we may, on the whole, be able to get better profits than by a system of 
permanent meadows. 

PERMANENT MEADOWS. 

Much, of course, must depend upon the soil and its situation. When 
lands are rough, or not easily tilled— lands that are filled with stone, which 
at every seeding would require much labor in removing — it may be desirable, 
if possible, to put down in meadows that are to remain long in grass. How, 
then, can these be made productive from year to year, in the least expensive 
way? Perhaps the most economical method in treating such lands would be in 

TOP-DRESSING WITH LIQUID MANURES, 

as the liquid excrements from animals produce the most remarkable results 
upon grass lands. In 1866 I was upon Alderman Mechi's farm near London, 
where the system of liquid manuring is most elaborate, and where the results 
obtained are truly astonishing. His stables are constructed over cellars laid 
in stone and cement, so as to be water tight. The cattle stand upon sparred 
floors, where the liquid and solid excrements drop through the openings 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 83 

between the narrow joists to the manure pit below. A large tank is sunk in the 
ground outside the building, and pipes laid from this to the manure cellar. Pipes 
lead also from the tank into the fields where there are hydrants, to which gutta 
percha hose are attached for distributing the liquid manures. The solid and 
liquid manures in the cellar are every few days flushed with water, so that 
they can be pumped into the tank by the aid of a steam engine, and from the 
tank they are forced through the pipes to the fields and distributed over the 
crops from time to time, by simply manipulating the fiexible hose. By this 
system his crop of Italian rye-grass yielded thirteen and a half tons green, 
or if made into hay about four tons seventeen hundred weight at the first 
cutting, and as much more at the second cutting. From 

THE MEADOWS NEAR EDINBURGH, 

on which the town sewage flows, the rye-grass has been made to yield, it is 
stated, at the enormous rate of eighty tons green grass, or twenty-five tons 
of hay, to the acre. This system is not applicable, of course, to American 
dairy farms, but I mention it to show the value of irrigating grass lands 
with liquid manures. But I have another method more practical, one that 
has been adopted in Herkimer with success, and which may be carried out 
on the majority of dairy farms. 

ABSORBING LIQUIDS WITH SAW DUST. 

It consists in absorbing the liquid manures of the stables by the use of 
saw-dust or muck, and applying as a top-dressing. 

Mr. Lewis of Herkimer, N. Y., has practiced this system with great 
success. He commenced some years ago by taking twenty-five acres of land 
which were then of only ordinary fertility. These he underdrained and 
seeded to timothy, clover and orchard grass, and began to top-dress with 
liquid manures. He uses saw-dust for the absorption of the liquid manures, 
and for this purpose it is spread in the stable behind the cows. As fast as 
the liquids are absorbed by the saw-dust, during the winter, they are hauled 
immediately to the field and placed in piles. In Spring these piles are spread 
as evenly as possible over the surface with a fork or shovel. Then he goes 
over it with a brush harrow, which completely breaks up and distributes the 
manure in fine particles. He uses basswood dust from seasoned wood, and 
which is obtained at a neighboring match factory. 

By this practice he has for some years past been enabled to get from this 
meadow a quantity of hay sufficient for the winter keep of fifty cows. 

LIQUID MANURES. 

Dr. VoELCKER, the celebrated agricultural chemist of England, in a 
recent lectui-e on the subject of manures, made the following remarks : — "He 
need not speak of the superior value of the liquid over the solid excremen- 
titious matters of dung, for that was well known to intelligent farmers ; but 
there was a chemical point to which he must be permitted to direct attention, 



84 



Practical Daiby Husbandry. 



and it was this : The liquid portion of rotten dung had a most active powerjl 
of dissolving the more valuable fertilizing matters of the solid excrements of 
animals. They know, for instance, that j)hosphate of lime — the material on 
which principally the value of bone dust depended — was soluble to a greatj 
extent in liquid manure. As the liquid in rotten dung dissolved a large* 
proportion of the more valuable constituents of the solid excrements they 
would now see an additional reason for preserving their liquid manure, for in 
so doing they would not only retain the fertilizing matters in urine, but they 
would also prevent the waste of the most valuable constituents of the solid 
excrements. He had dwelt on that chemical point, because it had come under 
his notice especially, in consequence of an examination of the liquid portion 
of dung, sent to him by Mr. Campbell of Buscott Park. In that liquid he found 
a very large proportion of phosphate of lime, which was otherwise insoluble." ' 

Wherever I have seen liquid manures used in this way, whether absorbed 
by sawdust, or muck or loam, previously dried, the very best results have 
been obtained. A point of great importance in 

TOP-DEESSING MEADOWS 

is, to use fine manures, or such as can be readily broken up and distributed, 
so that the particles may reach the roots of all the plants. Coarse manures 
improperly prepared, ought not to be used, as they cannot well be broken 
down, remaining in lumps upon the surface, obstructing the growth of grass 
and clogging the machines while mowing. 

TOP-DRESSING AETER MOWING. 

In top-dressing meadows with the solid excrements from cattle, or farm 
yard dung, very excellent results are obtained by making the application 
immediately after mowing. The manure then acts as a mulch, protecting the 
grass roots from the scorching rays of the sun, while the fall rains carry the 
particles to the plants, giving them vigor, and thus enabling them to with- 
stand the severity of winter frosts. Gypsum should always be used immedi- 
ately after the application of manure for top-dressing, in order to avert the 
escape of ammonia. 

THE STANDARD VARIETIES OF GRASSES FOR MEADOWS 

are red-top, timothy, the clovers, and orchard grass, to which may be added 
perennial rye-grass, tall oat-grass, rough-stalked meadow-hard fescue, or 
such varieties as seem best adaj)ted to the soil and situation. 

The following are the analyses of timothy and red-top at the time of 
flowering : 





Water 


Staeoh 


Woody 

FIBEE 


Sugar. 


Albu- 
men, 
&c. 


Gum. 


MnSTEK- 

AL MAT- 
TBB. 


Timothy, 


70.0 
71.0 


5.5 
3.8 


12.5 
13.0 


4.3 
4.& 


40 
3.3 


1.8 
1.5 


3.0 


Red-top, •. 


3.5 







Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



85 



OKCHAED GRASS. 

Complaint is sometimes made against orchard grass, that it grows too 
much in tufts or tussocks. This may be obviated by heavy seeding. I have 
seen meadows of great productiveness from this variety alone, where the 
turf was solid, and the yield of hay at the rate of four tons per acre. It was 
cut twice during the season, and even after the second cutting a large yield 
of after-math was produced. In these cases the land had been seeded at the 
rate of one and one-half to two bushels per acre. The following table shows 

THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF GRASSES, 

as made from analyses. They do not always represent their experimental 
values, but still the table is useful in comparing approximate values of differ- 
ent varieties. It is taken from C. L. Flint's valuable work on " Grasses and 
Forage Plants." 



Name or Gkass. 



K as 

o g 

"» K "A 

< 



K 


%li 




N 


gw P 


H 


< 


§ » a .r 


a 




EAT-P 
PBIN 
8TABC 
SUGAI 


§ 

o 


fe 


K 


^ 


3.41 


43.48 


36.36 


2.93 


43.13 


33.83 


3.19 


38.03 


34.34 


3.14 


44.33 


33.70 


1.56 


36.53 


43.33 


3.56 


39.35 


39.30 


3.30 


46.68 


31.67 


3.17 


43.24 


35.20 


3.37 


57.83 


19.76 


3.55 


53.35 


26.46 


3.43 


51.70 


30.33 


3.63 


43.06 


38.03 


3.67 


40.17 


38.03 


6.53 


33.05 


35.14 


3.06 


43.90 


34.30 



K f^ 



Sweet-scented vernal grass, 

Meadow fox-tail, 

Tall oat-grass, 

Orchard-grass, 

Orchard-grass, seeds ripe, 

Meadow soft-grass, 

Meadow barley -grass, 

Perennial rye-grass, 

Italian rye-grass, 

Timothy, 

Annual spear-grass, 

June-grass, 

Rough-stalked meadow-grass, 

Grass from irrigated meadow, 

Grass from irrigated meadow (second crop) 



10.43 
12.33 
13.95 
13.53 
33.08 
11.53 
11.17 
11.85 
10.10 
11.36 
11.83 
10.35 
9.80 
25.91 
10.92 



6.33 
7.81 

11.59 
5.31 
5.51 
6.37 
6.18 
7.54 
9.05 
5.28 
3.83 
5.94 
8.33 

10.37 
8.83 



The following table, from analyses of Boussingault and others, gives the appropriate 
composition of the green stems and leaves of some of the leguminous and other 
plants not usually cultivated for haj^ : 



Green 

PEA 
STALKS. 



Spur- 

ET. 



Green 

STALKS 
OF BUCK- 
WHEAT. 



Coam'NlPEENCBl White 

VETCH. VETCH. LUPINE. 



Common 

WHITE 
FIELD 
BEAN. 



Green 

OATS 
FODDER 



Water, 

Starch, 

Woody fiber, 

Sugar, 

Albumen, 

Gums, &c., 

Fatty matter, 

Pliosphate of Lime,. 



80.00 
3.40 

10.31 
4.55 
0.90 
0.65 



0.19 



77.00 

3.3 

12.0 



82.5 

4.7 

10.0 



77.5 

2.6 

10.4 



79.5 

3.8 

11.5 



B6.0 
1.3 

7.0 



3.7 
5.3 



0.3 
3.6 



1.9 
7.6 



0.7 
3.6 
0.9 



1.8 
3.9 
1.0 



0.8 



85.0 
1.5 
9.0 
0.3 
1.05 
3.35 
1.0 



83.0 
5.0 
7.5 
3.5 
1.0 
0.5 



0.5 



86 Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 

IMPROVING LANDS BY IRRIGATION. 

There is another method of keeping up permanent meadows which I am 
surprised is not more frequently taken advantage of by the dairy farmers 
of America, and this is irrigation. Where meadows are located at the foot 
of hills and slopes, and where the water of small streams coming from the 
uplands can be taken advantage of, valuable results can often be obtained at 
trifling expense, simply by leading the water in channels so that it may be 
made to overflow the meadows. In Great Britian opportunities of this kind 
are generally taken advantage of by farmers. 

UTILILIZING WATER FROM SPRINGS. 

I was recently upon a farm in Lewis County, N". Y., where a meadow of 
forty acres had been made to yield annually, a crop of three tons of hay per 
acre, by utilizing the water from springs oozing out of the slope above it. 
This meadow was slightly undulating, and the surface soil largely made 
up from the wash of the hiUs. It had been underdrained, but the large and 
continuous yield of the grass crop was due mainly to irrigation. Along 
near the foot of the hill above the meadow, there is a small stream, made up 
from numerous springs coming out of the hills, and this stream having been 
made to take a diagonal course across the slope, is employed to irrigate the 
entire meadow lot whenever desired. 

The water is first let upon the meadow in the spring when the snow is 
going oif, and is left upon the ground a week or more, when it is turned off. 
Then about the middle of May, if the weather is dry, the ground is flooded 
again and so from time to time till the grass gets a good, thrifty vigorous 
growth. Sometimes only portions of the field are flooded when the grass is 
not heavy, and the whole is effected with but little trouble, by means of 
sluices from the creek, and a hoe to turn the water on different parts of the 
meadow as desired. This meadow had been sown about ten years, and had 
received but little attention in manures. 

Mr. Allen, of the same county, has a meadow of a hundred acres lying 
at the foot of a range of hills ; but there are no permanent streams or springs 
which can be made to overflow it. Still in the spring of the year a large 
quantity of water from the melting of the snows, comes down, and by cutting 
channels this is utilized in flooding the land, and producing the most marked 
result in the yield from his meadow, which has been down in grass more 
than twenty years. 

I was recently upon a meadow of six hundred acres, in the state of Wis- 
consin, which had never been plowed. About twenty years ago, advantage 
was taken of a considerable stream of water flowing on one side of the field, 
and by erecting a dam and gates at a point in the stream just above the field, 
and cutting sluices from it to the meadow, and then again a ditch at the lower 
end of the field to let the water off into its main channel, the land could at any 
time be flooded. This meadow had never received a particle of manure, and 
for the last fifteen years the annual crops have been large. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 87 

Mr. KiEESTED of Ulster Co., IST. Y., states, in a communication published 
in the Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, that he had 
a piece of land — a coarse gravel, nothing but Johnswort grew upon it. 
There was a large spring directly above the lot, though the water running as 
is mostly the case from springs, in a channel directly across the lot. He went 
to work cutting channels with a plow, and drew the water upon the land ; the 
result was, red top and herds grass came in and grew so stout that it lodged. 
The water, he says, should be attended to at least twice a week, and not 
allowed to become stationary or stagnant. 

I have not proposed to discuss the different methods adopted to effect the 
objects of irrigation, but have merely alluded to some of the simple modes 
which have been employed with success. Numerous and well authenticated 
statements might be given of the valuable results obtained in fertilizing fields 
by artificial irrigation, and thus increasing their productiveness. 

Sir John Sinclair, in speaking of this operation, calls it one of the 
easiest, cheapest and most certain modes of improving poor land, in particular 
if it is of a dry and gravelly nature. " Land," he says, " whenever improved 
by irrigation, is put into a perpetual state of fertility, without any occasion 
for manures or trouble of weeding, or any other material expense ;" and in 
explaining the philosophy of its effects, its valuable results, it is supposed, are 
not due altogether to the artificial moisture furnished the plant, but to the 
mechanical action of the irrigating current of water in exercising the plants ; 
strengthening their organisms, keeping their stems and root crowns clear of 
obstructions, and promoting the equable distribution of the soluble materials 
of their food. These probably play a considerable part in irrigating fertiliz- 
ation. 

" The difference of effect, from the mere circumstance of flowing or stag- 
nation of the water, is prodigious ; for while flowing water coaxes up the 
finest indigenous grasses of the climate and renders them sweet and whole- 
some, nutritious and luxm-iant, stagnant water starves, deteriorates, or kills 
all the good grasses." 

GROWING ROOTS FOR DAIRY STOCK. 

Every one who keeps stock should make some provision for their winter 
keep by raising a patch of roots. We have heretofore alluded to the benefit 
resulting from this kind of food for cattle during winter and spring. The 
foddering season in latitude 43° falls but little short of six months. Continued 
feeding of dry food for so long a period has a tendency more or less to 
derange health. This is particularly so with milch cows, many of the 
diseases which occur from time to time being induced by badly regulated 
diet. There is nothing that improves the health of stock like an occasional 
feed of carrots, beets, or turnips through the foddering season. 

There may be difference of opinion in reference to the kinds of roots most 
profitable to grow ; but there can be none with regard to the improved condi- 



88 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

tion of stock that have a daily or even semi-weekly allowance of this character I 
of food. For the spring feeding of milch cows roots of some kind should be * 
regarded as indispensable. After years of experience in the management of 
dairy stock and ample experiment in feeding, in order to get the best results 
for the season, I have come to the conclusion that the value of roots as a 
spring feed for milch cows can hardly be over-estimated. Dairy stock that 
had a daily allowance during the spring months, come upon grass in vigorous 
health, and are enabled to yield heavy returns of milk throughout the season. 
If a cow on turning to grass is thin and in feeble health, nearly half the 
summer is consumed in regaining health and condition ; and until this point 
is attained a maximum yield of milk cannot be expected. Many dairymen 
complain in the early part of the season that their stock is doing poorly, 
though an abundance of pasture is provided, and they cannot see the reason. 
But if the cause be traced out it will often be found to be in impaired 
health or some derangement of the system, resulting from the character of 
the food consumed during winter and spring. Cattle like a change of food, 
and it is as necessary for their health as for that of the human species. 

When we make use of milk from animals it is of the utmost importance 
that it be kept free from every objectionable taint. A sickly cow not only 
yields a diminished profit, but she yields unhealthy milk, and unhealthy in a 
higher degree than her flesh. If for no other reason than improving the 
health of dairy stock, root culture should enter into the operations of every 
dairy farmer. Beets, carrots and mangolds should be sown early, but turnips 
may be delayed till the latter half of June. The mangold has this advantage 
over other roots, it keeps late, and is therefore valuable for feeding during 
the latter part of spring. Sugar beets — the white and yellow — are nutritious, 
and make a good feed for cattle. Beets require a deep and well pulverized 
soil. In field culture they grow best where the land has been sub-soiled. In 
root culture, whether for beets, carrots, or turnips, it pays well to manure 
heavily with well rotted manure. Fresh manures are objectionable in this 
respect ; they induce a sprawling, imperfect growth of roots, and more espe- 
cially is this so with carrots. In field culture we should always prefer that 
the drills be so far apart as to admit of cultivation between the rows with 
horse power. It takes more land it is true, but then this is amply compensated 
by the less amount of labor necessary to raise the crop. When labor is high 
it pays to use the various improved devices for tilling the soil and cultivating 
crops which are to be worked by horse power. If the rows are from two 
to two and one-half feet apart they can be readily worked by the horse-hoe, 
and the weeds kept down at much less expense than by hand labor. All roots 
demand thorough culture and freedom from weeds. Clean culture is the main 
secret in growing a root crop. Lai'ge returns cannot be had where the ground 
is allowed to be overrun with weeds, and it is always better to plant no more 
than can be well cultivated. Some persons make a mistake in laying out 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 89 

more work than can be accomplished with the usual force on the farm, and so 
in their effort to get through the whole, they no more than half cultivate the 
ground, allowing weeds to get the start ; and thus root culture is abandoned 
because it is managed so that it does not pay. This is all wrong ; it is always 
the safest course to start moderately, and as it were, " feel one's way " into 
a business until all its parts are perfectly understood. No one need expect to 
grow carrots, or beets or turnips, without labor. They may require more 
attention than the inexperienced at first expected, but they are a good 
investment, and will pay back for all work well directed and judiciously 
applied. 

Some prefer the culture of carrots because they make a good feed for 
horses as well as cows. The crop requires more labor, because the plants are 
of slow growth at first, and cannot be so readily freed from weeds on this 
account. It is a good plan to sow radish seed at the time of putting in the 
crop, as the radish springs up earlier and serves to mark the rows. 

Where turnips are to be planted the ground should be well manured and 
repeatedly plowed up to the time of sowing. This will keep down weeds and 
give a good seed bed. Where the ground is j^repared by ridging and the 
seed sown on the ridges it can be cultivated earlier and with more ease than 
by flat culture. The quantity per acre and the profits of a root crop will 
depend on the manner in which it is cultivated and cared for. By special 
cultivation immense yields have been made. In ordinary or fair culture from 
six hundred to one thousand bushels per acre on good soil may be obtained. 
Roots should be more extensively grown. By this means more stock can be 
kept on the farm, an increased quantity of manures made, and of course 
better profits realized than where no such culture enters into a part of dairy 
farm management. 

TURNIP CULTURE. 

In 1865 I visited Mr. Brodie of Jeflerson Co., IsT. Y., who is well known 
as a breeder and importer of thoroughbred Ayrshires. He believes that 
turnips are the best root crop for cattle feeding, and he raises annually large 
quantities of them for this purpose. He practices a system of rotation in 
which turnips enter as a regular crop. The system is as follows : The first 
crop after breaking up grass land is Indian corn ; this is followed by roots, 
generally turnips or potatoes, and the third crop is barley or oats, when the land 
is put down to grass by seeding with about a peck of timothy and seven 
pounds of clover seed per acre. From five to eight acres of turnips (Swedes) 
are usually sown, and as many as seventeen hundred bushels to the acre have 
been raised, single specimens sometimes weighing from ,twenty to twenty- 
three pounds. Mr. Brodie thinks turnips are worth 10c. per bushel when hay 
is |10 per ton, and the cost of raising and storing them is 2^c. per bushel, 
calling the use of the laud |5. The tops also are worth something for 
feeding. 



90 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

A neighbor, who made the experiment to test the value of turnip tops for 
milch cows, foimd that the increase of milk, from feeding to twenty cows, was 
worth |1 per day for cheese making. 

For turnips the land is plowed in the fall, and cross plowed in the spring, 
sometimes twice, and then the drills are opened and well rotted manure 
applied at the rate of thirty-five loads per acre. When long manure is to 
be used it is forked over two or three times and applied last. The drills are 
made with a Scotch plow, having long handles and a long share, thus facili- 
tating the opening of a perfectly straight row. This is important in order 
that the machine for weeding may cut the weeds away close up to the plants. 

BONE MANURE 

had been tried by Mr. Beodie for turnips, but without giving satisfactory 
results. The rows are made twenty-eight inches apart, and seed sown about 
the 1st of June, at the rate of three pounds per acre. After the plants are 
well up they are thinned out to twelve inches apart and the weeds kept down 
between the rows by the use of a Scotch horse-hoe. This implement consists 
simply of a common cultivator frame, with a thin, sharp shovel-tooth in front, 
and two rear cultivators or knives running down perhaps six inches and then 
bent at right angles inward, so that this machine may be set to run close up 
to the plants without injuring them. It does the work efi"ectually, leaving 
but little labor to be done in hand-hoeing. 

hakvesting, storing and feeding turnips. 

When the turnips are ready for harvesting, the men go along the rows 
with a sharp hoe and strike off the leaves of a plant at a blow. The tops are 
gathered up and given to stock, and when all are removed a team and harrow 
are brought into the field and the roots hauled out with the harrow. This, it will 
be seen, is a very expeditious mode of pulling the roots, and one that should 
be generally known to those who are engaged in growing turnips for stock. 

In storing turnips they should not be kept too warm, and a little frost 
does not injure them. They generate considerable heat, and when stored in 
a large heap provision should be made for ventilation. 

For fattening animals two bushels are fed per day ; but for cows a peck at 
a feed and twice a day is all that is used. When " calves begin to come " 
and when cows are giving milk in the spring, a quart of beans per day is 
added to the feed of each cow. Cattle that are fed a bushel of turnips per 
day will not take much water. 

In estimating the value of turnips as compared with hay at |10 per ton, 
Mr. Beodie put them at 10c. per bushel, though he remarked that he would 
not sell at that because if he had a surplus it would be more profitable to 
purchase 'Stock and feed for the butcher. It will be seen that under this 
system where from eight to ten thousand bushels of turnips are annually 
grown a large amount of stock can be wintered, and of course an increased 
quantity of manure made upon the farm. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 91 

plan of root-gkowing at york mills, n. t. 

Mr. K.ICHAED Gibson, who had the management of the stock farm of 
Walcott & Campbell at New York Mills, and who has been very success- 
ful in managing root crops, has i-ecently given the following details in regard 
to his system of growing this crop. He states that in 1869 he raised about 
fifteen acres of roots, which yielded at the rate of one thousand bushels per 
acre ; and the cost, including rent of land and manures, was 6^c. per bushel. 
Two rods of the red mangolds yielded at the rate of two thousand and thirty 
bushels, by weight, to the acre. He believes there are great advantages in 
ridging the land for root crops, because in that way more surface soil which 
contains most of the properties of plant food, is next the roots. Again, one 
man can cultivate the ridges with the horse-hoe as easy as a man and boy can 
where there are no ridges. A better seed-bed also is made in this way. The 
ridges are about one foot wide on top where the seed is drilled. He says : 

" I will commence at once with what I consider the great secret of the 
successful cultivation of roots, viz. : Autumnal or fall cultivation. And in 
endeavoring to be as concise as possible will not here give my reasons for 
preferring this season of the year, except to observe that we have a better 
opportunity of destroying foul weeds, &c., than in the hurry of spring work. 
The first great object to be attained is to get a fine seed bed, as soon after 
harvest as convenient, either by plowing, or as I prefer, with the two-horse 
cultivator, followed by the harrow and roller. If this has been properly done 
you will have a fine seed bed, when the first shower will cause all seeds of 
annuals, &c., lying in the soil near the surface to germinate. 

"When you judge all seeds have started growing, the land should be 
plowed up deep, which will kill one crop of weeds — and at this time I prefer 
to apply the barn-yard manure. If it is coarse, would plow it under ; but if 
well rotted and on light soils, would apply to the surface, and well incorporate 
with the surface by harrowing, again producing a fine seed bed, thereby 
causing all other seeds left in to germinate and be killed by the frosts. 

" As I have before remarked, a fine mold is one of the principal objects 
aimed at by the root grower. We gain this the best on heavy soils by ridg- 
ing in the fall ; they lie thus until the latter part of April when they are 
harrowed down, the artificial manure sown and the ridges again made up, not 
reversed. The fine winter mold is thus kept at the surface, where required. 

" Sowing does not immediately follow, but time is allowed for the mois- 
ture from beneath to find its way upward again, which it is sure to do. 
Another reason why the soil is better to be plowed up deep and made fine is, 
that in time of drought moisture ascends from below by capillary attraction, 
just as a piece of thread placed with one end in the water would become all 
wet from the moisture below. So do the minute particles of earth carry 
moisture from below upward — provided the subsoil be porous. Again, a very 
great source of moisture in dry seasons is the night dew, which permeates 



92 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

well-tilled porous soils, conveying all its rich treasures of nitrogen for the 
supply of the plant, but which dews could not penetrate to the rootlets of 
the growing plants on lands which are simply skimmed on the surface. 

VARIETIES. 

" There are three varieties of turnips, viz. : Swedish, or ruta-bagas, yellow 
and white. The white or common turnips are sown last, but used first, 
followed by the yellow, and lastly the Swede, which is the kind generally 
grown to store for winter use. 

" There are also several varieties of mangolds, viz. : long, red, and yellow, 
the yellow and red globes, also the white or sugar beet. I prefer the globes 
on all soils except such as are very deep and rich, where you can get a greater 
weight of the long varieties ; but I consider for a general crop, the yellow globe 
the best, being the hardiest and also most nutritious. The sugar beet I have 
discarded, not being able to grow such large crops, and it is apt to grow 
fangy, which makes it harder to pull up, and liable to break in the ground. 

SOWING. 

" There are two ways of sowing, either on the flat in rows from eighteen 
to twenty-six inches apart, or on ridges twenty-six inches apart. Each plan 
has its advocates. For my part I prefer the ridge on all soils except very 
light, as being so much easier to hoe and keep clean. 

MANURES. 

" Of the various kinds of manures I have used, I have found good barn- 
yard dung answers best, taking all soils and seasons into consideration. When 
I say dung, I don't mean straw and water, but manure made from animals 
eating oil-cake or grain, and made in sheds or good yards, with buildings 
well spouted — applied at the rate of fifteen to twenty-five loads per acre. 
But occasionally you are so situated as not to have sufficient manure to spare, 
therefore must use artificial, and indeed, though not absolutely necessary, it 
is what I would always advise, to give the young plant a good start and force 
it along, so as to get it out of the way of the fly as fast as possible. Nothing 
that I have tried answers the purpose so well as superphosphate of lime applied 
at the rate of two to three hundred weight per acre. 

" Others may be so situated that they have no barn-yarcl manure to spare; 
in that case would sow bone dust at the rate of ten to fifteen bushels per 
acre, with a little qxiick, active manure, such as guano or supei-phosphate, 
applied at the time of sowing to give the young plant a start. What manure 
is applicable to one soil might not be to another ; we must ascertain what 
suits our soil the best, there are so many circumstances to be taken into 
consideration — character of soil, previous course of cropping, climate, &c. It 
would be foolish to say bones would suit all lands, or that because guano 
failed on a certain soil it was good for nothing. It is like a physician prescribing 
for a patient when he doesn't know his disease. I have never known bones 
to fail, and of this you may be sure, good barn-yard manure always tells. 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 93 

" The yield per acre will depend in a gi-eat measure upon the means 
employed ; the increase being for the most part dependent upon the state of 
the soil, and the quantity of manure applied. It must, however be obvious, 
that after the land has been brought into the necessary state of tillage the 
next question is, to what extent manure may be applied best to facilitate the 
object. It becomes merely a calculation whether an extra ton of manure will 
or will not produce a corresponding return in weight of roots. So far as my 
experience has gone I have found that by an extra application of one hundred 
weight of suitable artificial manure at the cost of two to three dollars, from 
four to five tons increase of roots may be produced. The mangold being a 
plant of marine origin, salt is necessary to its full development. I have 
generally applied this in the fall at the rate of from two to four hundred 
weight per acre. 

TIME AND 3IETHOD OF SOWING. 

" I have already noticed how important it is for the soil to be reduced to 
a very fine condition before the sowing of the seed ; but there is another 
point to which it is advisable to draw attention, for the moisture of soil has 
a very powerful influence on the early growth of the j)lant, as well as upon its 
continual development. In ordinary seasons the usual method of sowing the 
seed as soon as the tillage operations are completed, appears to answer satis- 
factorily ; but when the seasons are unusually dry, there is a great advantage 
gained by modifying this system. The land having been ridged and rolled, 
instead of sowing the seed immediately it is better to delay the operation for 
twelve or fourteen days. There are one or two reasons for this practice 
which are worthy of notice. The chief inducement is, to give time so as to 
enable the natural moisture of the land to rise into the recently worked soil. 
If you examine land shortly after it has been worked in dry weather, you 
will find a moist layer of earth on the surface of the ridge, which covers up 
a dry layer beneath. When the seed is sown upon such a ridge the moisture of 
the upper soil causes the seed to sprout, and as its roots pierce into the ground 
beneath, they enter a drier soil from which they can procure no moisture, 
and therefore no nourishment. This causes a check in the growth just when 
the turnip-fly is busy at its work ; and unless there should happen to be a fall 
of rain, the crop is sacrificed, or at any rate seriously injured. But when the 
ridges have been ready for sowing twelve or fourteen days, generally the 
moisture of the soil will have risen into the ridge, and no such check can 
arise ; but if the land should be too dry for the seed to sprout, then it waits 
for rain, and when the supply comes it grows as if it were in a hot bed. 
Under such circumstances it is a matter of no importance how dry the surface 
may be at the time of sowing. 

" Mangolds should be sown in this climate eai-ly, in fact as early in the 
spring as the land is warm enough and in a proper condition. I generally 
sow before corn-planting — Swedes from the 10th to the last of June. Quantity 
of seed per acre, Swedes, about two pounds. For the sake of an extra half a 



94 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

pound of seed a crop has often been lost. Sow thick enough, so that if the 
fly or beetle does attack them there will be plenty left for the crop. Man- 
golds, if drilled, will require about five pounds, if dibbled, not so much after 
cultivation. 

" The young plants will make their appearance in about six or seven days. 
As soon as they can be distinctly seen, the horse hoe should be run through 
them, and when the plants are about three inches high they will be ready for 
flat hoeing, and this is a very particular operation. If the horse hoe has been 
properly used, it will have left a ridge from three to four inches wide and two 
to three above the general level, with a row of plants in center ; these are 
singled out with hand hoes, being careful to leave but one plant at intervals 
of twelve inches, and if the land is very rich, they may be left still farther 
apart. If your land has been properly cleaned before sowing, it will now 
require very little attention — running the horse hoe through a couple or three 
times, and it may require going over again with hand hoes. But if the 
weeds make their appearance, keep up the battle — you can't grow both. 
Whenever they show themselves keep the horse hoe moving ; let them once 
get well ahead and you are beaten. 

PULLING. 

" I commence about the beginning of November. They should be safely 
pitted before sharp weather sets in. Mangolds ai-e very sensitive of frost, 
therefore should be got up first. Turnips will stand considerable frost with- 
out injury, provided they are not bruised or handled much while frozen. We 
generally pull up the mangolds, give them a shake and wrench off the tops ; 
a knife should not be used ; it is better to leave a little soil on them than cut 
into the root, as they bleed considerably wherever the skin is broken, and are 
apt to decay. 

" I will endeavor to describe a very expeditious way of gathering turnips ; 
where your crop is large and soil dry it answers well, and is very cheap : 
Take a sharp hoe and cut ofi" the tops of two rows, gathering them with your 
foot as you go along. When you have gathered a good sized heap, pull up 
with your hoe a few turnips where the heap is to be placed. Another man 
brings along two more rows and piles his tops on the same heap, so that the 
tops from four rows are piled in one row of heaps. Care must be taken to 
pile the tops in rows each way, and make good large heaps. When all the 
tops are cut off, run a chain harrow between the heaps of tops, and in an hour 
or two cross harrow them, which will shake off all the soil and take them up 
clean. A common drag will answer, but a chain harrow is better, not bruis- 
ing the turnips in the least. For three years I have taken eight to ten acres 
up each year, and they keep until June ; and no rotten ones. 

STORING. 

" If you have not cellar room sufiicient to store all your roots, they may 
be kept equally well, in fact, I believe, better, for late feeding, by properly 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 95 

pitting. They may either lae stored in heaps in the field where grown, or 
carted home, near barns, and pitted in long heaps, about four or five feet 
wide at the bottom, and arranged as high as will stand, gradually sloping 
toward the top ; the piles to be covered with a few inches of straw and then 
about ten inches of soil, well beaten down, so that there are no cracks or 
open places where the frost can enter. Care should be taken that the piles 
are made on top of the ground, in dry situations ; and at intervals of six 
or eight feet drain tiles or wisps of straw should be placed in the ridge to 
allow the heat and steam to escape, for after being placed in large heaps 
they always heat more or less, and if there is no vent for the steam, &c., to 
escape it rots the roots. More roots are rotted every year by being covered 
too close than by frost. 

" I have not said much about carrots, as I have discarded them for cattle, 
because I believe we have in the turnip and mangold nearly everything 
desirable in the root crop. For horses, probably they are better, also for 
butter making in winter. But they have always cost me twice as much per 
bushel as mangolds have done, and for causing a flow of milk I am perfectly 
satisfied that the mangold is altogether superior. On finishing our carrots 
one year ago, and commencing to feed mangolds, our cows increased their 
milk very perceptibly. 

" If I were asked to name the best root for all purposes, I should have no 
hesitation in naming the globe mangold. 1st. It can be grown on land 
unkind for the growth of turnips. 2d. Such lands will bear a much heavier 
crop. 3d. It may be kept much later in the season, and if fed judiciously 
with other food it is equal, if not superior, in its fattening qualities, to the 
best kind of turnips. 4th. It has fewer enemies, the cut worm being the 
only insect that I have found to prey upon it here. 5th. Let it once get fairly 
established in the ground before hot weather sets in, and drought has very 
little efiect on it — standing dry weather better than any crop with which I 
am acquainted. You may lose a, little in quantity but gain in quality. 

" The turnip, though it has its enemies, has also its good qualities, indeed 
for pregnant animals I prefer it to the mangolds ; also for fattening stock up 
to April, when the mangold is better and increases in nutrive value. For 
butter making in winter I have no doubt that the parsnip is one of the best 
roots, ranking fully as high as the carrot, but from my own experience, I 
cannot recommend them for field culture, as they require so much hand 
weeding, and being so long before they come up, give the weeds such a 
chance. I have always been able to grow mangolds at one-half the price 
per bushel, and for causing a flow of milk, I consider them superior. 

KOTATION OF CROPS. 

" A root crop here can never bear the same relation to other crops in the 
rotation as it does in England ; there it is the great crop for cleaning and 
manuring the land for another course; here it must be grown in a great 



96 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

measure for the value of the root alone ; there, half the crop is generally- 
eaten on the field where grown, by sheep, the other half being fed to cattle 
in sheds ; here, it must be regarded more as a crop which may be profitably 
used to keep our cattle and sheep in a growing and healthy condition through 
lono- winters. As a crop in the rotation, I would take a field that wants clean- 
ing, as you have a better chance to get your lauds clean with roots than any 
other crop, though they may cost you more a ton to produce. After roots, 
if your climate is suitable to the growth of barley, I would sow that, and seed 
down, as it is well known that grass seeds ' catch ' better with barley than 
anything else, and the soil after turnips, with the constant hoeing, is generally 
in such a friable state as barley delights in. After turnips last year, I sowed 
oats on a small piece of one acre, two roods and three perches ; have just 
finished them ; there were ninety-one bushels — and one man was threshing 
part of a day, which were not measured — in all there would not be less than 
ninety-six to ninety-eight bushels. The grass seed also grew well." 

BEETS. 

Hon. Henry Lane of Cornwall, Vermont, who has been very successful 
in raising large crops of the American Improved Imperial Sugar Beet, thus 
details his manner of cultivation in an essay before the Vermont Dairyman's 
Association. He says : 

" A light sandy soil is least suitable to the growth of the sugar beet, while 
the various loamy soils, and especially those containing a large proportion of 
clay, are best adapted to its growth. 

PKEPARATIOiSr OF THE SOIL. 

" In the first place, all stagnant water, either on the surface or within 
reach of the roots of the beet, should be removed by thorough drainage. 
Although the beet requires a large amount of moisture to carry on a vigorous 
and healthy growth, yet I know of no plant that will show the presence of 
stagnant water quicker than the beet by its assuming a yellowish hue and 
sickly aspect. • It will not extend downward its usual length, but on reaching 
water will divide into numerous small furzy roots, which spread in all 
directions, to the great injury of the crop ; hence, in the preparation of most 
soils, and especially clay soils, thorough drainage is necessary. Land intended 
for beets should be kept in high condition by a liberal application of fine 
manure, at least twenty-five loads per acre. If your soil contains quite a per 
cent, of clay, it should be plowed in the fall, as the action of the frost will 
mellow it. Avoid sowing on turf land, for the turf will obstruct the tap-root 
and thus induce a development of furzy lateral roots, much to the injury of 
the crop. After the manuring and plowing have been done, harrow the ground 
until mellow, ridge with the double moldboard plow, making the ridges 
thirty inches apart, flat down the ridges with a garden rake, I sow with 
Harbington's or Holbeook's seed sower, at the rate of four pounds of seed 
per acre. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 97 

time of sowing. 
" With beets the success of the crop depends very much upon early- 
sowing. The very first suitable weather after the frost is out and the soil 
suificiently dry to be worked, should be improved even if this is as early as 
the middle of April. Beets, after growing to one half-inch in thickness, form 
a concentric ring or layer about every fifteen days ; these vary in number 
from six to ten, depending upon the length of the season after planting. The 
oldest leaves are those at the bottom of the crown, and are in direct commu- 
nication with the older and central layer. As new leaves are formed, the 
central leaves on the top of the crown communicating with the last and 
external layer, each succeeding layer being external to the one preceding it, 
its diameter and bulk increases in an increased ratio, the last two being at 
least equal to the four internal ones, consequently doubling the crop, and this 
generally after the first of September. 

DISTANCE BETWEEN KOWS AND PLANTS IN THE ROW. 

" I would not have the distance between the rows less than two feet or 
more than two and one-half feet. This latter distance I consider the best, as 
it gives more space to run the cultivator. It is always better that the crop 
should be made up of large, sound roots, than that it should consist of a great 
number of smaller ones, even though the weight be the same per acre. The 
large roots require less labor from the singling out to the final harvesting 
of the crop, and indeed, till they are fed out. I leave the plants eighteen 
inches apart in the row. If the plants stand eighteen by thirty, there will 
be eleven thousand six hundred and sixteen per acre. At this distance, each 
beet weighing eight pounds, would give to the acre forty-six and a-half tons. 

SINGLING AND HOEING THE CROP. 

" After the plants have put forth their second pair of leaves, the cultivator 
should be run between the rows, and the " bunching " should follow. This is 
done with a hoe, cutting out twelve or fifteen inches, leaving about three 
inches in the drill untouched all along its length. Soon after bunching, the 
singling and weeding should be performed. After singling out the plants 
and the first weeding is performed, the after labor is accomplished by the 
hoe and cultivator, requiring but little more labor than an ordinary hoed crop. 
Beets require a large amount of moisture, and by frequent tillage, keeping 
the surface light and porous, the soil will retain this necessary moisture. 

HARVESTING. 

" In ordinary seasons, the middle of October is the best time for harvesting 
this crop. This variety of beets can be lifted by hand without the use of a 
fork. The roots when pulled are left lying in the rows until dry. The tops 
are removed by wrenching them off by hand or cutting with a knife. If the 
knife is used care should be taken not to injure the crown of the beet. As 
the tops are removed, place the roots in heaps to dry, and go through the 
1 



98 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



sweating process previous to their removal to the cellar. Protect them at 
night and from storms with tlieir own leaves. After two or three days, they 
can be stored in the cellar for winter use, and if stored dry, will keep sound, 
even if hundreds of bushels are placed in one pile. 

COST OF RAISING. 

" If we would make a field crop of the beet, we must avoid the old practice 
of doing all the labor with the hoe, thumb and finger, and give them clean 
culture by the frequent use of the horse cultivator. They can be raised for 
five cents per bushel (of sixty pounds). At this low cost, and considering 
their great value as food for cattle, sheep and swine, how can a farmer think 
of wintering his stock without his cellar of roots. This subject is well 
deserving the attention of all farmers." 

AKAXTSIS OF MANGOLDS AND TURNIPS. 

The following table, the result of analyses by Sir Humphrey Davy and Mr. Herepath, 
shows the comparative value of the sugar beet with mangolds and turnips. 

Quantity of nutritious and fat-producing elements in 1000 parts. 



Mucilage 
OE Starch. 



• SUGAB. 



Gluten or 
Albumen. 



TOTAIi. 



Swedish turnips,. 

White turnips, 

Mangold wurzel,. . . . 
Orange globle wurzel 
Sugar beet, 



9 

7 

13 

173^ 



51 

34 
119 
1063,^ 

126M 



3 
1 
4 

IK 
1)1 



63 

53 

136 

134 
1453^ 



cotton seed meal. 

Cotton seed meal has not been used to any great extent by American 
dairymen as a feed for milch cows. Among those Avho have used it for this 
purpose there is some difference of opinion as to its value. In 1866, while 
going through the dairy districts of England, I found farmers often speaking 
of cotton seed meal, and commending it as a highly nutritious and valuable 
food for milch stock. With some it was preferred to linseed cake, and much 
surprise was manifested that its use had not become general in the dairies of 
America. The question of what is the cheapest and best food for milch cows 
is one of considerable importance to the dairy farmer, and is by no means 
settled. Some insist that good pasturage and early cut, well cured hay are 
sufficient for the summer and winter keep of cows ; while others regard it 
profitable to give in addition to the above a daily allowance of grain or meal ots 
some kind. With the constant variation in the price of difierent grains, it often 
becomes quite difficult to determine Avhich is relatively the cheapest for feed- 
ing purposes. A scale of prices based upon the experimental or nutritive 
value of different kinds of foods for animals, would be extremely useful to 
farmers, since I am convinced that many feed in a hap-hazard way and 
without knowing whether the cheapest or the dearest food is employed. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 99 

To the general lack of knowledge in respect to the comparative nutritive 
value of different kinds of food for stock may be attributed, at least to some 
extent, the limited use of linseed cake -and cotton seed meal among the stock- 
keepers of the country. 

In regard to the value of cotton seed meal for milch cows, I find an 
interesting statement from Mr. A. W. Cheevek, in the Massachusetts Plough- 
man. He gives the experience of farmers in Cumberland and Franklin, where 
cows are made to yield a large quantity of milk by a daily allowance of the 
meal. Mr. Moeey, he says, showed him cows that would yield, at their best, 
twenty-four quarts, and were, at the time of his visit, giving from twelve to 
sixteen quarts. In summer, each cow gets, in addition to pasture, two quarts 
of cotton seed meal, Mr. Belcher also feeds in the same manner. They 
both think very highly of eotton seed meal for feed. 

Mr. B. was formerly cautious in the use of it, Now he buys a cow and 
immediately puts her on a full feed of cotton seed meal, " He bought a cow 
last spring for seventy dollars that was claimed by the owner to give twelve 
quarts. He now milks eighteen quarts from her daily. 

" Mr. MoEEY says if he is out of cotton seed one day his cows will shrink 
a quart each, and neither Indian meal or wheat shorts will keep them up to 
their quantity ; but after feeding cotton seed again one day they will come up 
again to their full rate. Neither of the gentlemen named have ever had a 
case of garget or swelled udder on their premises," &c. 

Mr. Cheever says he knows of other herds in the town of Franklin that 
are fed on cotton seeds very freely, that are healthy and free from anything 
like garget. In his own experience he has been quite cautious in the use of 
cotton seed, having rarely fed more than two quarts per day to a cow, but 
with such examples is inclined to feed more boldly in the future, " as it is one 
of the cheapest grains he can buy, and, according to the chemists, one of the 
richest." 

Dr. VoELCKER, who some years since made a number of analyses of 
cotton cake and cotton seed meal for the purpose of determining its nutritive 
value, speaks of it as a most valuable feeding substance. He says the best 
decorticated cotton cake has a light yellow color and is free from any strong 
smell ; neither has it any well-defined taste. 

Mixed with water in a roughly powdered state it does not become gela- 
tinous like linseed cake ; nor does it develop any pungent smell under this 
treatment like rape seed. 

Cotton cake does not contain any large amount of mucilage nor anything 
that produces, on mixing with water, a volatile, pungent and injurious essen- 
tial oil. 

Cattle often take at once to it, and even when fed upon linseed cake they 
soon get accustomed to the taste of cotton cake and apparently eat it as 
readily as linseed cake. It contains very high and much larger percentage of 
flesh-forming matters than linseed cake. This circumstance suggests that 



100 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

cotton cake may probably be given with great advantage to young stock and 
to dairy cows. As by far the largest proportion of the nitrogen of food is net 
assimilated in the system, but passes away with the excrement of animals, 
the dung produced by stock fed upon cotton cake will be found particularly 
valuable. 

In comparison with linseed cake, there is much less mucilage and other 
respiratory matter in cotton cake. This deficiency is compensated, to a certain 
degree, by the larger amount of oil in cotton cake. The proportion of indi- 
gestible woody fiber in decorticated cotton cake is small, and not larger than 
in the best linseed cake. Lastly, it may be observed that the ash of cotton 
cake is rich in bone material, and amounts to about the same quantity as that 
contained in other oil cakes. 

Two specimens of cotton seed meal, on analysis, gave the following 

results : 

No. 1 No. 3 

Moisture 9.40 10.31 

Oil 17.39 19.71 

Albuminous compounds (flesh forming matters) 43.81 40.25 

Gum, mucilage, sugar and digestible fiber (heat producing substances). . . 11 .21 16.38 

Indigestible Avoody fiber 10.44 5.84 

Inorganic matter (ash) 7.75 7.61 

100.00 100.00 
On analyzing the ash of the cake it gave the following average compo- 
sition : 

Potash 39.045 

Soda None. 

Chloride of sodium None. 

Lime 3 . 750 

Magnesia 13.500 

Oxide of iron 1 . 530 

Phosphoric acid 39 . 649 

Sulphuric acid - 930 

Carbonic acid 363 

Soluble silica 3.252 

Insoluble silicious matter (sand) 17.706 

99.724 
From this analysis it will be seen that, for the purpose of supplying 
animals with bone material, cotton seed is a very valuable kind of food. 

The conclusion which Dr. Voelcker draws from his numerous analyses 
is as follows : — " The best cotton cake is richer in oil and albuminous (ilesh- 
forming) compounds than linseed cake, but contains less mucilage and other, 
respiratory constituents. The mineral portion of cotton cake resembles 
closely, in composition, that of linseed and other oil-cakes. Like the ash of 
all cakes it is rich in earthy and alkaline phosphates, and well adapted to 
supply animals with bone materials. Genuine oil meal is simj^ly thick, decor- 
ticated cake reduced to a coarse powder, and of course has the same compo- 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 101 

sition as the cake from which it is made. Decorticated cotton cake and oil 
meal, in comparison with other kinds of artificial food, are decidedly cheap 
feeding materials." 

In the early manufacture of cotton seed meal, injurious effects were some- 
times attributed to its use as a cattle food, on account of the large per- 
centage of indigestible woody matter, or husk of the seed which it contained. 
This hard shell in which the kernel of cotton seed is encased being removed 
or taken out by the manufacturers of the cotton seed meal, makes it unob- 
jectionable in this respect. 

LINSEED. 

This is the seed of the flax plant, the lAnum usitatissimum of botanists, 
and the type of the linaceous group of vegetation. The seed contains on the 
average about twenty-two per cent, of oil, ten of sugar, forty-five of starch, 
and eighteen of albuminous matters. When the oil is expressed the residuum 
is linseed cake, a highly nutritious cattle food ; as are also the seeds them- 
selves in a crushed or half-boiled state. There can be no doubt of the 
nutritive advantages of the plan of crushing and boiling the flax seed, and 
steeping in the liquid the usual allowance of dry food, over that of giving 
animals the seed whole and alone, or in conjunction with dry food in its ordi- 
nary state. The plan which has been found to answer best is to mix the 
crushed or ground linseed in the proportion of one of linseed meal to one 
gallon of water, adding three pounds of beans, peas or oatmeal, to neutralize 
its oleaginous properties, and to give it when cool. It is stated that a cow 
supplied with the usual feed of hay and turnips, which gave four quarts 
of milk per day, yielded eight quarts, besides improving in condition " on 
getting two additional feeds from one bushel of flax seed chaff pressed in a 
tub of boiling water, allowed to stand for twelve hours, and mixed with two 
pounds of oatmeal and four ounces of salt.'\ These feeds were thus given : 
The first feed of steamed mixture at 7 a.m. ; then some hay ; at 10 a.m. thirty 
pounds of sliced turnips ; the cows were then let out for two hours, until the 
house was cleaned out and fresh littered ; the next feed was thirty pounds 
each of mangold wurzel, and at 7 p.m. another steamed feed and hay for the 
night. 

LINSEED CAKE 

is well known as a fattening food for cattle, and for milch cows it is useful in 
moderate quantities as a means of keei^ing up their condition, and thus 
securing richness in their produce. 

RAPE CAKE 

is of very similar properties and value. From four to six pounds given daily 
to each cow, at the same time that it greatly diminishes the requisite supply of 
other food, will very much enrich the milk. In nutritive value 22-3 parts of 
these oil cakes are equal to 100 parts of good hay. From experiments made 
by Mr. Thompson on the comparative effect of linseed and beans during 



102 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



equal periods in producing milk and butter, it was found that the amount of 
milk produced by beans was equal to the mean of that produced by linseed 
during ten days ; the amount of butter under the bean diet was greater than 
under that of any other kind of food whatever. This is an important fact in 
reference to the soures of butter in the food, since the linseed meal employed 
in the experiments contained twice as much oil as the bean meal. 

LUCERNE. 

The Medicago sativa of botanists and a member of the leguminous 
family. It is a deep-rooting perennial, with clover-like stems, and is, in a 
mild climate or on a good deep calcareous soil, one of the most productive 
sources of green food, yielding more than clover and being considered by 
some to be even superior in quality. Good grass, however, such as the 
Italian rye-grass, must be considered a better food. The seed is sown early 
in April, and during the season four cuttings at least may be taken. A 
fourth part of an acre will yield an ample supply for one cow during the 
Soiling season. This and similar green crops, which if taken in excess are 
liable to render the animals " hoven," may be safely given when slighty air- 
dried. Lucerne contains in 1000 parts, '750 of water, 143 of woody fiber, 44 
of gum, 22 of starch, 19 of albumen, 8 of sugar, &c. Its inorganic constit- 
uents contain a large preponderance of lime, with considerable quantities of 
potash, soda, phosphoric and sulphuric acid. Compared with meadow hay its 
nutritive value is represented by 83, the latter being 100. 

THE DIEFERENT CLOVEES CONSTITTTTE 

probably, as valuable food for cattle generally as the true grasses, and for 
milch cows they excel in the principles essential to an increased flow of rich 
milk, The analysis of the three important species used for both fodder and 
hay, substantially, as given by Einhoe and Ceome, are as follows : 





Red clovek. 


White clover. 


LUCEENE. 


Water 


76.0 
1.4 

13.9 
2.1 
2.0 
3.5 
0.1 
1.0 


80.0 
1.0 

11.5 
1.5 
1.5 
3.4 
0.2 
0.9 


75.0 


Starch 


2.2 


Woody fiber , 


14.3 


Sugar 1 


0.8 


Albumeu , • . ^ 


1.9 


Extractive matter and gum ....,,,.,.... 

Fatty matter 


4.4 
0.6 


Phosphate of lime ,...,... 


0.8 







STRAW, 



Straw, besides its value as litter has, when of good quality, considerable 
value as fodder. Cut iip and soaked in emulsions of linseed or similar pre- 
parations, it serves the important part of giving bulk to the richer kind of 
food, w}iile it is not itself innuti'itious. The best straw for this purpose is 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 



103 



that of the oat. The nutritive equivalent and percentage of nitrogen in the 
different kinds of straw is shown in the table given below, as compared with 
meadow and clover hay : 

NITROGEN IN DIFFERENT STRAWS. 





H 


Percentage 

OP 

Nitrogen. 


Composition per cent. 




Dried. 


Undried 


Water. 


Woody 

FIBER. 


Starch, 

GUM 

and 

SUGAR 


Gluten, 

ALBUMEN 

&c. 


Fatty 

MATTER 


Saline 

MATTER. 


1. Meadow hay, 

2. Red clover 
hay. ; 


100 

75 
479 
383 
426 
460 

64 


1.34 

1.70 
0.30 
0.36 
0.36 
0.30 
1.45 


1.15 

1.54 
0.24 
0.30 

0.27 
0.25 
1.79 


14 

14 

12 to 15 

12 
12 to 15 
12 to 15 
10 to 15 


30 

25 

45 
45 
50 
50 
25 


40 

40 
38 
35 
30 
30 
45 


7.1 

9.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
12.3 


2 to 5 

3 to 5 
2 

0.8 

2 to 3 

2 

1.5 


5 to 10 
9 


3. Rye straw. . . . 

4. Oat straw 

5. Wheat straw, 

6. Barley straw, 

7. Pea straw 


4 
6 
5 
5 
4 to 6 



CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD OP ANIMALS. 

The importance of attention to the proper constituents of the food of 
animals is very properly insisted on by Dr. Thomson in his little work 
entitled " Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals," and is clearly 
pointed out in the table given in the next page, which I have extracted from 
it. From this it is evident that food containing the greatest amount of 
starch or sugar does not produce the greatest quantity of butter, although 
these substances are supposed to supply the butter ; but the best product of 
milk and butter is yielded by those species of food, which seem to restore the 
equilibrium of the animals most efficiently. The first column in the table 
represents the food used by two cows ; the second column gives the mean 
milk of the two animals for five days ; while the fourth contains the amount 
of nitrogen in the food taken by both animals during the same period. 



Milk 



riVE DAYS. 



Butter 

IN 
FIVE DAYS. 



1. Grass , 

2. Barley and hay 

3. Malt and hay 

4. Barley, molasses and hay 

5. Barley, linseed and hay. , 

6. Beans and hay 



lbs. 

114 
107 
102 
106 
108 
108 



lbs. 

3.50 
3.43 
3.20 
3.44 
3.48 
3.72 



Nitrogen in 

food in 
five days. 



lbs. 

2.32 
3.89 
3.34 

3.82 
4.14 
5.27 



"From this table," continues Dr. Thomson, " We may infer that grass 
afibrds the best products, because the nutritive and calorifiant constituents 
are combined in this form of food in the most advantageous relations. The 
other kinds of food have been subjected to certain artificial conditions, by 



104 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

which their equilibrium may have been disturbed. In the process of hay- 
making, for examj^le, the coloring matter of the grass is either removed or 
destroyed by fermentation, while certain of the soluble salts are removed by 
every shower of rain which falls during the curing of the hay." 

OATS. 

Oats are of the least value for fattening purposes of all the cereals, and, 

unlike the others, the meal is most nutritious when made from the kernel 

alone. When made into bread, it possesses very great nutrition and excellence. 

It is rich in flesh-formers, and consequently valuable for food for the laboring 

classes, in furnishing elements contained in a meat diet, which is not always 

attainable to them. This is particularly the case in portions of Europe, 

where it furnishes one of the principal articles of food. The composition of 

oats, after most of the husk has been removed, is as follows : 

Water 14.0 Or economically : 

Gluten and albumen 18.0 Water 14.0 

Starch 39.9 Flesh -formers 18.0 

Sugar 5.3 Fat-formers 51.1 

Gum 2.8 Accessories 14.7 

Fat 5.9 Mineral matter 2.2 

Fiber 11.9 

Mineral matter 2.2 

It is a fact worthy of remark, that of one hundred pounds of oats, two- 
ninths, or about twenty-three pounds, consist of husks, which are of no value 
as food. Oats are most valuable as food for horses, and in this country are 
used almost entirely for this stock. 

BAELET. 

The composition of barley is as follows : 

Water 13.9 Or, economicaUy , 

Gluten 13.0 Water : 13.9 

Starch 47.5 Flesh-formers 13.0 

Sugar 4.1 Fat-formers 52.0 

Gum 3.5 Accessories 16.9 

Fat 0.4 Mineral matter 4.2 

Fiber 13.4 

Mineral matter 4.2 

BUCKWHEAT. 

Buckwheat, although valuable for fattening purpose, is grown but little 

in this country, comparatively with other grains. The composition of the 

grain when ripened is : * 

Water 14.0 Or, economically : 

Gluten 9.0 Water 14.0 

Starch 48.0 Flesh-formers 9.0 

Gum 2.5 Fat-formers 52.1 

Sugar 2.5 Accessories 23 . 3 

Fat 1.6 Mineral matter 1.6 

Woody fiber 20.8 

Mineral matter 1.6 

The good returns, easy cultivation on poor soils, and ability to stand extremes 
of temperature, render this a desirable grain on the farm, and there is no reason 
why it should not occupy as high a position as some of the other cereals. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



105 



Table of comparative equivalents op dipfekent Cattle Foods. 



^ H 

H 2 K 
O " tJ 
-«) « o 

§§« 


B J. 

Q 

C " P 

i^; s o 
§11 


1.4 


18.9 


0.6 


6.6 


1.2 


7.0 


1.0 


18.8 


0.9 


13.6 


1.0 


5.2 


0.9 


3.3 


1.0 


12.6 


0.9 


7.9 


2.7 


2.3 


0.2 


4.7 


1.9 


2.6 


0.7 


4.7 


1.8 


2.3 


1.0 


2.7 


1.0 


8.5 


4.0 


9.7 


3.3 


8.7 


13.5 


36.3 


2.0 


3.6 


1.5 


2.7 


1.9 


3.6 


22.5 


18.7 


18.7 


40.0 


12.7 


38.0 


14.7 


66.4 


11.0 


66.7 


14.3 


55.8 


13.0 


52.0 


18.0 


51.1 


9.0 


52.1 


23.1 


41.9 


23.9 


39.3 


24.0 


39.7 


25.7 


38.9 


22.1 


51.0 


22.2 


48.6 



»< 3 1 
£;kW 
W i= H 

t< «; t= . 

it ^f^< 
p o o M 



Irish potatoes, 

Carrot, 

Parsnip, 

Jerusalem artichoke, 

Sugar heet, 

Swedish turnip, 

Common white turnip, 

Mangokl wurzel, 

Green pea stalks, 

Spurry (green), 

Green stalks of Buckwheat,. 

Common vetch (green), 

French vetch (green), 

Green stalks of white lupine 
Green stalks of white beau,. 

Green oats (fodder), 

Green timothv grass, 

Green red-top grass, 

Superior English hay, 

Red clover (green) 

White clover (green), 

Lucerne (green), 

Red clover (hay) 

White clover (bay) 

Lucerne (hay), 

Wheat flour, 

Indian corn, 

Rye meal,. 

Barley meal, 

Oat meal, - 

Buckwheat meal, 

Peas, 

Kidney Beans, 

White field beans, 

Lentils, 

English linseed cake, 

American Linseed cake , 



20.3 

7.2 

8.2 

19.8 

14.5 

6.2 

4.2 

13.6 

8.8 

5.0 

4.9 

4.5 

5.4 

4.1 

3.7 

9.5 

13.7 

12.0 

49.8 

5. 

4. 

5. 

41. 

58. 

50. 

81. 

77. 

70.1 

65.0 

69.1 

61.1 

65.0 

63.2 

63.7 

64.6 

73.1 

70.8 



245.3 

691.6 

607.3 

251.5 

336.5 

803.2 

1185.7 

367.6 

565.9 

960.0 

1016.3 

1106.6 

922.3 

1212.1 

1345.9 

524.2 

363.4 

415.0 

100.0 

907.1 

1185.7 

905.4 

120.8 

84.6 

98.2 

61.4 

64.2 

71.0 

76.0 

72.0 

81.5 

76.0 

78.7 

78.2 

77.0 

68.0 

70.8 



A careful examination of this table, prepared from the best English, 
American and German authorities, and the comparison of the money value 
of these articles of food, modified as experience may suggest, with their 
feeding value as here given, would be of immense benefit to farmers, and 
save them much money, often injudiciously expended. — U. 8. Ag. Mep.^ 1865. 



. 



STOCK-SELECTION, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FOR 

THE DAIRY. 



Which is the best breed of cows for the Dairy and how is it to be obtained? 
This question has been before the dairy public for the last quarter of a 
century, and to-day is by no means settled among practical dairymen. If 
you go among the breeders of thorough-bred stock, you will get no end of 
argument, backed by a formidable pile of statistics, to show that this or that 
breed is best. It is now Short-horns, then Ayrshires, or Alderneys, or 
Devons, or Dutch cattle ; just as you happen to meet those interested in one 
or the other of these breeds. 

Now it may be presumed that none of these men intend to mislead ; for 
they may have strong convictions of the truth of what they advocate, and, 
under certain conditions, I think it might be proved that either would be 
rio-ht. But that any one of these breeds is best adapted to all soils, all 
climates, and for all purposes, is quite another matter, and which is not true 
in fact. The practical questions for dairymen to decide are, firsts what breed 
of cattle is best adapted to the climate, the soil and the surface of the 
country, or farm where the stock is to be kept, and second^ what breed is best 
adapted to the particular purpose for which it is wanted. It would, it seems 
to me, be exceedingly poor economy for the butter maker, located on a 
rough, hilly surface, affording scanty herbage, to select short-horns ; because 
they are not an active race, and demand a plentiful supply of nutritious food, 
food easy to be obtained. And to the cheese dairyman, located on a level or 
slightly undulating surface, yielding an abundance of rich food, who desired 
to get the greatest profit from making cheese and heef, it would be equally 
bad economy to select the Alderney. And yet if one was to engage in butter 
dairying alone, where extra quality and high prices were looked after sharply, 
the Alderney might serve his purpose altogether best. 

It is from overlooking certain conditions, and hoping to realize every 
excellence, such as quality and quantity of milk, of butter, of cheese, of beef 
with activity and endurance all centered in some one breed, that has caused 
so much dissatisfaction and difference of opinion among dairymen, in regard 
to particular breeds. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 107 

I have not proposed to discuss the breeding of stock at length, and in its 
various relations. The subject is a broad one, and a better knowledge of it 
can be had by taking up some special treatise like the admirable little work, 
for instance, of Mr. Goodale, Secretary Maine State Board of Agriculture, 
or that on American Cattle, by Hon. Lewis F. Allen. But what I have 
proposed is to to touch briefly upon some leading points of most practical 
utility to dairymen. Without entering upon the- history of the different 
ra«es of horned cattle, it will be sufficient to state that cattle have been domes- 
ticated from the earliest ages, and have been so varied by breeding that it 
would be impossible to say from what species of wild animals they have been 
derived — whether they had a common ancestry in one wild species, or in 
several. It is contended by some that the origin of the more marked breeds 
is due to several wild species, and that these have contributed to make our 
cows what they are. But however that may be, we know that different 
breeds have existed from very remote times. 

beebdijStg instead op puechasing cows. 

No one will deny that one essential requisite to success in dairying is to 
have good cows for the business, and in considering how this is to be obtained, 
it is evident the surest method would be to rely upon breeding animals upon 
the farm where they are to be used, rather than to purchase at random from 
droves, providing a kind, or race of animals can be obtained that will transmit 
desirable qualities or excellencies from generation to generation with reason- 
able certainty. Experience teaches us that we cannot rely upon the common 
stock of the country, to transmit any desirable quality with that certainty 
we can obtain from cultivated breeds which have been long bred in reference 
to special qualities, and have, in consequence, established a fixed type in this 
regard. I think our dairymen need not look beyond four or five breeds of 
thorough-bred cattle for obtaining desirable results ; namely, the Short-Horns, 
the Ayrshires, Devons, Alderneys, and the Dutch or Holstein cattle. There are 
other breeds more or less famous in the districts where they originated; 
such as the Galloways, the Kerrys, the Herefords, the Bretons, the Swiss 
and other European varieties. Some of them, at least, when transported 
from their native districts, have not given such satisfaction on the whole as 
the breeds I have named. 

ACCLIMATED CATTLE. 

Again it is of some importance to have cattle acclimated. How long it 
may take a race of cattle reared in a climate different from ours, to become 
perfectly adapted to the change from one country to another I cannot say, 
but it evidently requires some time. Hardiness and good constitution are of 
the utmost importance in milch stock. The drain on vitality from the yield 
of milk for long periods together, with the annual production of the calf is 
excessive, and hence the greatest attention should be given to this point. 
For what would it avail to have cows capable of yielding an enormous 



108 Fr ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 

product, that were wasting away with consumption, or of so little vitality as 
not to be able to resist disease or the ordinary inclemencies of our climate ? 
I have seen such herds and the cost of nursing and keeping them up, with 
the annual loss of stock, left no profit in their product. 

BREEDING FEGM HEALTHY ANIMALS. 

From ascertained physiological laws, says Prof. Vereill, "it appears that 
the ova of the female which are to become the germs of the future young, 
begin to develop at a very early period and continue to increase up to the 
time of impregnation. It is obvious then that constitutional diseases or 
imperfections, will be most likely to affect the ova. Hence only healthy or 
vigorous females should be used for breeding purposes, and they should be in 
the prime of life — not too young nor too old. It is equally important that the 
male should be perfectly healthy and sound, and free from all constitutional 
and hereditary diseases or imperfections. 



THE EXCESSIVE USE OE THE MALE 

for breeding purposes, either by placing him with too many females, ori 
employing him too often, is to be carefully avoided. The production of sper 
matozoa is one of the most exhaustive operations of the animal system, and 'if 
carried to excess, not only weakens the organs and destroys more or less the 
vitality of the spermatozoa, but seriously impairs the general health, and espe- 
cially the nervous system." I feel it the more incumbent to allude to this 
point because over a considerable area in New York, and in other dairying 
districts, 

ABORTION 

is excessively common among cows, and has become epidemic, causing 
immense loss. In New York commissioners have been appointed by the 
State, and have carried their investigations over the infected districts during 
a period of three years, but without arriving at any jDositive conclusion as to 
the cause of the disease. It doubtless has its origin in several causes, and it 
is strongly suspected that one of the j^rincipal causes of the disease is the 
employment of inferior males, or those that have been so over-taxed by 
excess as to weaken the reproductive organs and impair the quality and 
quantity of spermatozoa. A low vitality too, of the cow from excessive milk- 
ing and perhaps constitutional imperfections, operating with the other, have 
doubtless had an influence in developing this disease. " From the manner in 
which the young becomes united with the mother, so that the liquid portion 
of the blood may pass freely from one to the other, we may readily under- 
stand how the health or food of the mother may affect the embryo, or also how 
the mother's blood may be affected by the constitutional peculiarities of the 
embryo ; and therefore, since the embryo partakes also of the qualities of the 
father, how the mother may be so affected indirectly by the peculiarities of 
the male, that she may transmit those qualities to subsequent young by other 
males. The tainting of the mother's blood is produced in this manner. 



\ 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



109 



Examples of this are common where a mare has first brought forth a mule. 
Subsequent colts for several years will present more or less the mulish fea- 
tures. One of the earliest and most striking cases recorded, occurred in 
1815, when a pure Arabian mare was served by a quagga, a species of wild 
ass, striped somewhat like a zebra. The resulting hybrid had the quagga 
characters well marked. Afterwards, in 1817, 1818, and 1821, she had colts 
by a pure blooded black Arabian horse, but each of them bore more or less 
of the peculiar features and markings of the quagga, although she had not 
seen him after 1816. Cases have been noticed in breeding between horned 
and hornless breeds of sheep and cattle, where the first calf of a cow of a 
hornless breed has been by a bull having horns, subsequent calves, although 
by bulls without horns, and of the same pure blood as the cow, have had 
long horns. Similar facts have often been noted in regard to dogs. A bitch 
of pure blood having once had pups by an inferior dog, will not afterward 
produce pure-blooded pups by a dog of her own breed. From these facts all 
breeders of choice animals should learn the necessity of allowing females to 
breed only with pure-blooded or desirable males, even if all the young are not 
to be reared." 

CROSSIJS'G COMMOlSr STOCK WITH THOEOUGH-BEEDS. 

As a general rule however, the dairyman must rely upon the common stock of 
the country on the one han'd and the thorough-bred bull on the other, for the 




base of his operations. It is useless to talk about the exclusive introduction 
of pure thorongh-breds to meet the present wants of dairymen. The animals 
would be altogether too expensive even if it were possible to find them. 
Again, it may be doubted whether any advantage would be gained in the 
mere production of milk, over a judicious crossing of common stock with 



110 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



thorough-breds. The grade animal, as a milker, may prove equal to or even 
superior to the thorough-bred. It may be better acclimated and, as a rule, is 
more hardy. Losses are constantly occurring from time to time in every herd, 
from accident and disease. A portion of the herd must be turned off for this 
reason and on account of age. The only practical course, therefore, it would 
seem for the majority of dairymen is, to start with a good herd of native 
stock, using a thorough-bred bull, and breed up to the qualities desired. In 
saying this I do not object to the breeding of thorough-bred stock on dairy 
farms ; that may be done, and may be found advisable ; but I would commence 
at first in a small way, extending the business by degrees, as found profitable. 

WHAT IS TO BE CONSIDEEED IN BREEDING. 

I have said, the first thing for the dairyman to decide, is the use which 
he intends to make of his stock, and to what breed his lands are best adapted. 
To this end he must have some knowledge of the leading characteristics of 
the several breeds from which his choice is to be made. We may, therefore 
briefly glance at some of the chief features of the five breeds which have 
been named. 

SHORT-HORNS. 

First, of the short horn or Durham, which has done more, perhaps, to 
improve our cattle than any other breed, and which is really the most won- 




SHORT-HORlSr BXJIjIj. 



derM exhibition of the skill of the breeder. This large, docile, and rather 
inactive breed originated on the richest pastures of England. It has been 
bred especially for beef, and from its breeding was never intended to roam 
over rough, hilly surfaces, and gain thrift upon the lean feed of thinnish soils. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



Ill 



That breeders have accomplished eminent success in this animal is unques- 
tioned, and in nearly all countries where it has been introduced it has 
improved the size of cattle, and the quality as well as the quantity of beef. 
Some strains of this blood have been remarkable for their milking qualities, 
as we have abundant proof in England, and from early and late importations 
into this and other countries. Indeed, Mr. Allen, in his work on American 
Cattle, affirms that they are the greatest milkers in quantity of any breed 
whatever, with the exception of the Dutch, or that they may be compara- 
tively inferior, as education, keeping, or purpose may govern. We have 
numerous well authenticated instances, he says, of their giving six, seven, 




eight, or even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, in the hight of the season, 
and yielding fourteen to eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding 
out in their milk as well as other breeds of cows through the year. And he 
remarks further, that if the breeder's attention be turned solely to the dairy 
quality, he succeeds in obtaining, with few exceptions, good milkers. But if 
he turns his attention, regardless of milk, to the grazing qualities of his 
stock, he can gradually breed out the tendency to milk. 

THE SHORT-HORK GRADES. 

When Short-Horns are crossed on the common stock of the country, where 
good milking strains have been selected, the grades have often proved of great 
excellence as milkers. Upon fertile lands, rather level, or slightly undulating, 
and that furnish a large yield of nutritious grasses, this breed, from its peculiar 
aptitude to fatten readily, will naturally commend itself to those dairymen 
who desire to get a profit from their animals in beef, as well as in milk. 



112 



Practical Dairy Husbandrf. 



DEVONS. 



The Devons originated in the south-western part of England on other and 
different pastures. They have another kind of beauty, and have been bred 
for another kind of use ; not so large as the Short-Horn, thriving better on 
thinner soils and poorer forage, making good working oxen, and tolerably 
good milkers ; in fact, more of an animal for all uses than the Short-Horn, but 
inferior to it for certain special purposes in certain localities. The Devon 
yields a milk of rich quality, that will yield more butter in proportion to 
quantity than that of any other breed, except the Alderney. She is in some 
respects Avell fitted for a dairy cow, being docile in temper, easy of keep and 
readily managed. Her udder is of good shape with good teats, the milk 




r)E"S7"0]Sr BXJL.L. 

easily drawn, and not unfrequently remarkably good milkers have been found 
in this breed. We have good authority, says Mr. Allejs", that some of them 
have yielded ten to twelve pounds of butter per week, and they have given 
eighteen, twenty, and twenty-two quarts of milk per day, for months after 
calving, under steady milking. As a beef animal the Devon has always 
ranked first class. The flesh is fine, juicy and of delicate flavor. The Devon 
matures early, and develops rapidly under good feeding. Devon oxen have 
always been regarded as among the best. 

DEVONS FOB BUTTER. 

The butter dairyman on rather thinnish soils, or on rough, hilly pastures, 
and especially if he looks to the production of beef in connection with butter- 
dairying, will scarcely pass over the Devon as wholly unworthy his considera- 
tion. I cannot agree with some authors in their deprecating estimate of this 



Fractical Dairy Husbandry. 



113 



breed. In the southern dairy districts of England, I found them largely used 
for the dairy, and highly esteemed; and my own experience with Devon 
grades satisfies me they are much higher in the scale of good milkers than the 
Herefords, with which they are sometimes classed, for dairy purposes ; of 
course it is important to select stock from good milking families. 

THE AYRSHIBES, 

orio-inating on the western side of Scotland, in a moist climate, have been 
bred specially for milk ; and for this use no , one questions their value. 
They are medium in size, hardy, healthy, pretty well fitted to our climate 
and pastures; and for the milk farmer and cheese dairyman, where milk 
or its products alone are the object, considering the size of the animal, the 




food required for its keep, the great variety of soil and surface of the 
country to which it is adapted, perhaps no breed can show a better record. 

YIELDS OF MILK FROM AYKSHIRES. 

We have European accounts of some most remarkable yields of milk from 
Ayrshire cows. According to some writers, from six hundred to eight hun- 
dred gallons of milk per year is not unusual, while in some instances a 
thousand and more gallons have been produced. We may remark that these 
high yields have not been generally made by Ayrshires in this country, though 
the testimony of our dairymen in regard to their superior excellence as 
milkers is universal. Their only fault is in their short teats, which often 
renders them difficult to be milked, and in their highly excitable or nervous 
organization, which requires gentleness and extreme care in their manage- 
ment. They are not esteemed as a beef-making breed, though breeders claim 



114 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



that they readily fatten. I have fattened and used the meat of Ayrshire 
grades, and find them inferior, as beef-makers, to the Short-Horn and Devon. 

SHORT TEATS. 

It may be remarked in this connection, that a short teat is a serious 
defect in a cow. The milk is not only drawn slowly from such cows but 
milkers often neglect to milk clean, and in consequence the cow is made to 
decrease in her yield, and not unfrequently loses the use of one or more teats 
from obstructions resulting from neglect in drawing the milk. Hundreds of 
valuable cows in the dairy districts are injured and ruined from this cause. 




J^YJRSHIRE BXJIL.31.. 

When Ayrshires are crossed on the common stock of the country, or with 
cows having more or less of Short-Horn blood, the grades are generally good 
milkers, and the teats are greatly improved. Some of our dairymen insist 
that a high grade Short-Horn covered with a thorough-bred Ayrshire, gives 
the best result, and is to be preferred to the thorough-bred Ayrshire for the 
dairy. 

THE ALDERNET OR JERSEY. 

The Alderney or Jersey, comes from the group of rough, rocky islands in 
the channel between England and France. The pastures here are not luxu- 
riant, the feed is generally rather short, but very nutritious, and in that damp, 
mild climate, the feed extends through most of the year. The Alderneys are 
small in size, with deer-like head, thin neck, high shoulders, hollow back, 
large belly, and a clean, good sized udder. Though by no means a handsome 
animal, I do not think they are so homely and mean looking as many writers 
charge against them. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



115 



RICHNESS OF ALDEKNEY MILK. 



It is perhaps needless to say that the Jersey cow is famous for the 
richness of her milk. It has a deep yellow, creamy color, and in England the 
Somersetshire cheese dairymen nearly always have two or three Alderneys 
in their herds, to give quality and color to their milk. At Versailles 
it was shown that milk of this breed yielded six and a-half per cent, of 
butter, and Sir William Collings of the Isle of Jersey, carefully observed 
the quantity of butter from one of his cows ; it amounted to three hundred 
and ninety-four pounds per year. In another case, five cows for five years 
yielded three hundred and fifty-three pounds per year each. Many similar 
statements might be given. 

ALDERNEYS AS BUTTER COWS. 

As a butter coav, the Alderney undoubtedly has great merits ; and where 
rich milk and a fine quality of butter is sought after, for fancy prices, the 










Alderney, or a dash of Alderney blood in the herd, is of advantage. They 
do not yield a large quantity of milk, nor are the animals so hardy as the 
other breeds named, still they are more and more coming into use, and when 
crossed on deep milkers of our native stock, give good satisfaction among 
the butter dairymen. 

CROSSING ALDERNEYS AND AYRSHIRES. 

I should not consider the crossing of a pure bred Alderney with a pure 
bred Ayrshire as judicious. The cross has not been successful in Scotland, 
the result in both ways having been to jDroduce a progeny having the inferior 
points of both breeds. 



116 



Fbactical Dairy Husbandby. 



^ 



THE ALDEENET BULL, 

as has been remarked by Mr. Stephens, " has not so good a frame as the 
Ayrshire cow, nor has the Aldei-ney cow so good a constitution as the 
Ayrshire bull. There would be no economy in such crosses, since both breeds 
ought, from their high character, and world-wide reputation as dairy breeds, 
to be kept distinct and pure." But in the crossing of one or the other of 
these breeds on a common grade cow, the case is different, and good results 
may be expected. 

THE DUTCH BREED. 

The Holstein or Dutch Cattle of North Holland, are perhaps the most 
noted for the dairy of any originating on the Continent of Europe. Holland 
has long been a dairy country, and the farmers there have given more care 




and attention to their cows than to any other domestic animal. The breed is 
of large size, and of a compact, massive frame, capable of making good beef 
Their color is black and white, spotted or mottled in picturesque inequalities 
of proportion on the body. The horn is short, and the hair short, fine and 
silky. The Holsteins have been long bred and cultivated with a view to 
develop their lacteal production, and their milking qualities are truly wonder- 
ful. Some have expressed doubt, whether cows of so large a size, weighing 
from thirteen to fifteen hundred pounds, could be made profitable on much 
of our dairy lands. Doubtless on poor, thin soils their introduction might 
not prove advisable ; but when there is an abundance of food, the case would 
be different. Holland cattle have as yet received but little attention from 
American dairymen, but if the European accounts given of them are to be 
credited, there is reason to believe they would prove a success, on our deep, 
rich soils or most productive pasture lands. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



117 



NORTH HOLLAND CATTLE AS MILK PRODUCERS. 

In June, 1869, I ji-eceived a letter from Mr. Miller, then at the Royal 
Farming Academy at Eldena, Prussia, in which he gives an account of the 
North Holland cattle, and especially of the herd belonging to Professor 
Rhode of the Royal Academy. One of these cows, he states, had yielded 
in one year six thousand one hundred and forty-two Berlin quarts of milk, 
equal to one thousand five hundred and forty-eight English gallons. If we 
assume that a gallon of milk will make a pound of cheese, it will be seen that 
the annual product of this cow would be about three times as much as that 
yielded by Avhat is considered our best dairy cows. Mr. Miller states that 
a herd of twenty-two Holland cows owned by Professor Rhode made an 
average yield of three thousand five hundred and ninety-five and five-tenths 
Berlin quarts of milk each per year, while three Ayrshires in the same herd 
yielded only about half the quantity, or one thousand seven hundred and 
ninety -five and one-half quarts each. At the rate of milk given, this herd of 
North Holland cattle would have made an average in cheese of about eight 
hundred pounds each for the season. But whether as good yields can be 




^IjDeri^ky cow. 

made here by this breed, of course, must be decided by trial. Of recent 
importations of Holland cattle, it is said that one of the cows, six years of 
age, dropped a calf on the l5th of May, weighing one hundred and one 
pounds, and from the 26th of May to the 27th of July, by careful and exact 
record, gave four thousand and eighteen pounds fourteen ounces of milk. 
The largest yield in any one day was seventy-six pounds five ounces, or thirty- 
five and one-eighth quarts. Her average for ten days was seventy-four and 
forty-seven hundredths pounds per day, and the amount of cream produced 



118 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



from this milk was twenty-two seventy-one-hundredths per cent. Six days' 
milk of this cow being set for cream, produced seventeen pomids fourteen 
ounces of good butter. The Holstein cows have a reputation of being spe- 
cially adapted to cheese dairying, and it is for this purpose, doubtless, they 
should be employed. 




H:or^sxEi]sr btjljl.. 



Enough has been said, perhaps, to indicate the practical side of this ques- 
tion. The dairyman must have a clear understanding of his situation and the 
use to which his animals are to be put. Then remembering that " like begets 
like," he will select his materials, and breed to the desired j^oint. The most 




ITOLiS'TEIIsr CO^W. 



practical course to be recommended, it would seem, is by raising our native 
stock by a judicious admixture with the blood of milking breeds ; and then 
by improving on these grades. 



' Practical Dairy Husbandry. 119 

BAD HABITS i:NrHEEITED. 

In breeding stock for the dairy a point quite generally overlooked, but 
which is of great importance in securing good results, is to breed from ani- 
mals that are even-tempered and not disposed to be vicious. Peculiarities 
of bad temper, irritability and a disposition to be troublesome, seem to be 
transmitted from either parent to the offspring with considerable certainty. 
With the grazier these qualities may, in a measure, be tolerated. To him the 
chief points of consideration must be an aptitude in the animal for taking on 
fat at as little expense as possible, the finenees of the grain of the meat, mode of 
laying on fat, smallness of bone, soundness of constitution, and a certain con- 
geniality of the animal for the climate and soil on which it is to be grown or 
made ready for the shambles, being important. The grazier is not brought 
into that close familiarity with, or daily handling of the animal that is 
a necessity on the part of the dairyman, and hence, what might be 
considered intolerable vices in the dairy, would not be developed or 
noticed in the mere grazing animal. An animal may be descended from a 
good milking family, and under certain conditions of extreme care, prove to 
be a supei'ior milker, though of a nervous and excitable temperament ; but if 
she be naturally vicious and bad tempered, she will cause more vexation and 
annoyance in the long run than her milk is worth, while she is always liable 
to become worthless as a milker from freaks of nervousness and ill temper, 
which the herdsman, with all his care, is unable to prevent. I have seen and 
owned animals of great milking capacity, which it was a most disagreeable 
task to milk, and which, if the milk wasted by them during milking through 
the season were counted out, would make their yield poor indeed, so far 
as profit was concerned. 

I believe that a great many good cows are annually spoiled by cruel treat- 
ment and the bad temper of the milkers. Still there are vicious cows, and 
those of an extremely nervous organization, from which no profit can be realized 
under any course of treatment. I know men who have bred from a vicious 
and nervous thoroughbred bull, who are very much dissatisfied with this pecu- 
liai'ity of the parent infused in their herds. I have bred from animals disposed 
to be unruly and mischievous, cows that had acquired the habit of sucking 
their own milk, and have found these peculiarities strongly marked in their 
offspring ; not invariably, it is true, but generally when any viciousness was 
strongly mai'ked in the parent, it was pretty sure to be developed in the oflT- 
spring. My experience is, that such animals, even though they may be good 
milkers, do not on the whole pay in the dairy. I do not believe in pounding 
and beating milch cows, and have never seen any good come of it ; but a 
vicious beast is such a sore trial to the patience that most dairymen are better 
off" to be at once rid of it. Such cows cannot well be trusted to hired help 
without being pretty sure a mishap of some kind will befall them during the 
season ; besides, the time spent in tampering with a bad-tempered cow, will 
make her milk cost a high price, even though she yield a large quantity. 



120 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

VALUE OP A GOOD-TEMPERED COW. 

One of the most valuable qualities in milch stock is quietness and good 
temper; and in selecting animals to breed from, these qualities should be 
sought after, and considered of prime importance. Experience and close 
observation have taught that " like produces like," in other words, that the 
qualities of the parent, such as beauty or nitidity of form, disposition to fat- 
ness, goodness of flesh, abundance of milk, and temper ai"e inherited by their 
offspring. And yet dairymen often overlook serious defects of temper, and 
raise stock for the dairy that prove very unprofitable on this account. 

When thorough-bred bulls are to be purchased to improve dairy stock, they 
should not only be descended from good milking families, but from families 
that are known to be of good temper and free from any strongly-marked 
viciousness ; and by always selecting bulls of this character from which to 
breed, the defects in dairy stock referred to may be corrected, rather than 
increased. 

INFLUENCE OF KINDNESS. 

It may be remarked, also, that gentleness and quietness in milk-stock result 
in a measure from education, I have seen so many heifers ruined, which 
might have been fashioned into valuable stock for the dairy, that I desire to 
call attention to the importance of early handling and educating stock that is 
intended for milk. An animal cannot be taught quietness and familiarity 
with persons in a day, or in a month. Habits are slowly formed ; and if we 
would secure the highest results, the animal should be petted while young, 
and should have a constant familiarity with persons, and the feeling thor- 
oughly impressed that man is its best friend, from whom it has nothing to 
fear and to whom it may naturally look for kindness and protection. The 
treatment should be commenced with the calf and continued until it shall 
have become a full grown animal. Then it will have formed those feelings 
of affection for, and sympathy with persons, similar to those imjjlanted in the 
brute for its young. I have seen heifers and cows reared in this way, taking 
to a kind milker, exhibiting strongly marked affection, and showing a degree 
of patience and consideration that plainly indicated the feeling to which I 
have referred. Calves and heifers should be freely handled but never irritated 
or plagued, as this will teach them bad habits, which they will not forget as 
they grow older. I like to see stock that can be approached at any time in 
the pasture, and that has no fears of being handled or petted. For a milker, 
most dairymen prefer a heifer to come in when two years old, and if she has 
been well kept, so as to have attained good size, she will then be old enough 
to become a cow. The habit of giving milk is in part a matter of education, 
and I prefer to form that habit young. 

The impression prevails with many, that good blood is the only important 
requisite in rearing dairy stock. To reach the highest success, something 
more is necessary. The stock must have good keep and kind care. Good 
blood is a requisite ; but the best milking strain may be rendered inferior by 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 121 

poor keep and a bad education. To those who propose raising calves, with a 
view of having them take their place in due time in the dairy, I say commence 
at once to educate for milkers. Good feed, good care, with the habit of 
fondling your animals, will have an important influence in molding them to 
your wishes, and in securing desirable results. 

SELECTING COWS FOR THE DAIRY. 

In the enumeration of points for the selection of good milch cows, we 
find some valuable hints in a work by Prof J, H. Magnb, from which we 
briefly quote. A more extended description of points will be found in Mr. 
Allen's excellent work on American Cattle — a work that should be in the 
library of every American dairyman. Among the points to which attention 
should be given, the digestive organs are important. He says : — " Where 
these are defective, good milch cows are rarely met with, since these organs 
have a powerful influence on the exercise of all the functions, and particu- 
larly on the secretion of the milky glands. A good state of the digestive 
organs is evinced by a belly of moderate size, with yielding sides ; a large 
mouth ; thick and strong lips ; a good appetite ; easy and quick digestion ; 
glossy hair ; supple skin, with a kind of unctuous feel. The constitution should 
be sound, and this is implied by large lungs ; a broad and prominent chest ; a 
somewhat slow respiration ; and a great inclination to drink — an inclination 
stimulated by the abundant secretion of milk. Preference should be given 
to cows with small bones, fine and slender limbs, and tail fine at its base ; 
;he head small but longish, narrowing toward the horns ; the horns them- 
selves of a bright color, tapering finely and glistening; small neck and 
shoulders, apparently long because slender, especially near the head ; small 
eyelids well divided, but not much wrinkled; prominent eye, and a gentle, 
feminine look. 

" Good milkers allow themselves to be easily milked — often while rumi- 
nating they look with pleased eye (easily recognized) at the person who milks 
them ; they like to be caressed, and caress in return. The udder is formed 
principally by the glands which secrete the milk, and called the milky glands. 
These, four in number, two on each side, are designated by the name of 
' quarters,' each constituting nearly a fourth part of the udder. The udder 
is composed, moreover, of skin, cellular tissue, fat, lymphatic ganglions, 
vessels-, &c. In almost all cows, the abundance of the milk is in proportion 
to the size of the mamelles. The marks indicating that these glands are 
constituted so as to produce much milk are, a very large developement of 
the hind quarters ; a wide and strong lumbar region ; a long rump ; haunches 
and hind legs wide apart ; a large space for lodging the udder ; milky glands 
well developed, and causing the udder to be of considerable size. In good 
cows the gland constitutes a large part of the udder, and accordingly after 
milking, it shrinks much and becomes soft, flabby and very wrinkled. The 
teats should be set apart from each other, as indicating that the milk vessels are 
spacious. Of all the marks for ascertaining good cows the best are aflx>rded 



122 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

by the blood vessels ; if the veins which surround the udder are large, m 
winding and varicose, they show that the glands receive much blood, and 
consequently that their functions are active and that milk is abundant. The 
veins on the lateral parts of the belly are easily observed. These veins issue 
from the udder in front, and at the outer angle, where they form, in good 
cows, a considerable varicose swelling. They proceed toward the front part 
of the body, forming angles more or less distinct, often divide toward their 
anterior extremity, and sink into the body by several openings." 

guenon's discoveries. 
Some years ago Mons. Guenon, a Frenchman, made the discovery that 
cows known as " good milkers," had certain characteristic mai'ks, shown in 
the hair growing upon the udder, and upon and between the thighs above 
the udder. Following out this peculiarity on diiferent animals, and noting 
the variations in the marks on a great number of cows, from the best to the 
most inferior milkers, he was enabled to establish his theory of the " milk 
mirror " or " escutcheon," as it is termed. The basis of the theory may be 
stated in general terms, as follows : — The hair on the buttocks of cattle grows 
in two different directions, one portion pointing upward, and another part 
downward, and thus producing a sort of fringe at the point of juncture. The 
hair which has an upward tendency, has been termed the " escutcheon," the 
larger the extent of the " escutcheon," according to M. GtiEisroN, the greater 
the promise of milk, and also of the continuance even after the cow is in 
calf. A cow may have a small escutcheon, and yet be a good milker ; but 
observation leads to the conclusion, that if she possessed a more fully devel- 
oped escutcheon, she would have been a better milker. In estimating the 
extent of the escutcheon, allowance should be made for the folds in the skin, 
otherwise a large escutcheon may be taken for a small one. Besides the 
escutcheon there are tufts of hair which, when seen on the cow's udder, have 
a certain degree of value. It may be observed here, that M. Guengjst's 
theory is very elaborate, and cannot be relied upon in all its details, though 
its general outlines or leading features, when taken in connection with the 
shape and size of the cow, the texture of her skin, development of the 
udder and milk vein, her disposition, endurance of constitution and other 
points, give valuable aid in selecting good milkers. The principles laid down 
by M. GuENON, are of considerable value as additional aids to other well 
known points of a good cow, but they should not be relied upon singly and 
alone, as indicating what is, and what is not, a good milker in every case. 
I have known " experts " in the theory to be deceived, or make bad selections 
in cows ; and I have been misled, relying too much upon the marks, or escutch- 
eon, overlooking perhaps other essential considerations. 

MAGNE's CLASSIFICATIOlSr OF COWS. 

M. Magne, in his summary of M. Guenon's system, divides the cows 
according to the quantity of milk which they give into four classes. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 



123 



PIEST-RATE COWS 

are in that class, where both divisions of the lower escutcheon, the mam- 
mary and the perineum, are large, continuous and uniform, and cover at least 
a large portion of the perineum, the inside of the thighs and udder, and extend 
moreover, with little or no break, more or less over the limbs, eliptical in shape, 
and situated in the posterior face of the udder (Fig.1,2). But the cows may be 




Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

considered first-rate as milkers, if in the absence of a well developed escut- 
cheon, they possess the following marks : — Veins of the perineum, varicose 
and visible externally, or at least easily made so by compression at the base 
of the perineum ; veins of the udder large and knotty ; milk veins frequently 
double, and equal on both sides of the animal, and forming zigzag or wavy 
lines within the belly. In addition to the marks shown by the veins and by 
the escutcheon, the udder should be large and yielding, of homogeneous 
texture, having a thin skin covered with fine hair, and yielding or shrinking 
much under the process of milking. The chest should be ample, and a good 
constitution displayed by regular appetite, and a disj)osition to drink much ; 
the skin soft and supple ; hair short and soft ; head small ; horns fine and 
smooth ; eye quick, but gentle ; fine neck and feminine air. 

GOOD cows 
are those that present the mammary portions of the escutcheon well devel- 
oped ; but the perineum portion is either wanting or but partially developed. 
(Figs. 3, 4). If the escutcheon is ever so well developed, the cows are 
middling or bad, and do not belong to the first or second class, if the veins 



124 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



n 



of the udder are not iu considerable numbers, and the milk veins under the 

belly are not large. 



MEDIOCRE COWS 



possess the lower tuft of the escutcheon of the mammary part, little devel- 
oped or indented, and the perineum portion irregular, narrow and contracted. 




Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 

(Figs. 5, 6). The perineum veins are not visible, and the veins of the belly 
are small and straight. The head is large, skin stiff and thick, and the 
animal is often peevish and restless. 

BAD cows 

possess escutcheons of very small extent (as shown in Figs. 7, 8) ; no veins are 
visible in the udder or the perineum, and the milk veins are feebly developed. 
The cows of this class are generally in good condition, and showy, taking 
animals, the thighs are fleshy, the skin hard and thick, neck thick, head and 
horns large, and the latter of large dimensions at the base." 

I have perhaps quoted sufficient to show the general outlines of M.- Gue- 
non's theory, without going into an elaborate essay on the subject, which 
would need a large number of cuts to be clearly explained. But desirable as 
it may be for the dairyman to have a good strain of milking stock, his success 
will not depend altogether upon blood and skill in breeding. 

THE FEEDIISTG AND MANAGEMENT 

of his herd is an art which he will find is not to be learned in all its details 
in a day. Some dairymen never can, or at least never do, learn it. During 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



125 



the past ten years my business has called me very much among dairymen, 
where almost every variety of management is adopted. I have seen men 
with " scrub-herds," picked up here and there from the common stock of the 
country, obtaining an enormous product. I know men who get from common 
stock an annual yield of between six hundred and seven hundred pounds of 
cheese to the cow, while perhaps a neighbor with much superior blooded 
stock is unable to obtain anything like that product. How is this eifected ? 
In the first place these men have a natural talent for selecting good cows, and 
in the second place, they seem to be in perfect sympathy with the animals 
under their control, attending to every detail for their comfort, providing 
wholesome, nutritious food, janre water and pure air — everything of this kind 
in abundance — keeping the animals properly sheltered from storms ; feeding 
always with great regularity ; paying the most marked attention to the time 
and manner of milking, and withal preserving a uniform kindness and gentle- 




Fig. Y. 



ness of treatment throughout every operation, a gentleness extending even 
to the tone of the voice. It is really astonishing what a large difierence in 
the yield of milk it makes by attending properly to a number of small things, 
which would seem to many quite too insignificant to be worth observing. 
Indeed, had I not seen these effects in numerous instances and in my own 
experience, I could never have believed that their influence was so potent. 

DRYING COWS OF THEIR MILK. 

It would be impossible, in the scope of the present volume, to discuss all 
the essential points of management for dairy stock. I can allude only to some 



126 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

of the leading requisites for success. I commence first with drying cows of 
their milk at the end of the milking season. There is great difference in 
opinion among farmers as to the time that a cow should go dry. Some 
contend that no injury follows from milking cows so long as they will yield 
milk, or up to within a week or two of the time at which they are to calve; 
while others insist that at least from two to three months should be given a 
cow to go dry. The latter is doubtless the 'more sensible and judicious course 
to be adopted. A cow that is to "come in " during the early part of March, 
should be allowed to go dry in December. She will then have time to recu- 
perate and repair that waste which has been going on in the production of 
milk, and in building up the structure of th: young which she carries. 

It is a great drain on the system to continue the milking of a cow in 
winter, and up to near the time of giving birth to her calf; and it is to be 
doubted whether an animal treated in this way will yield any more, if as 
much profit, as she would were the other course adopted. For it is not 
altogether the quantity of milk that is to be looked after,. but its quality must 
also be taken into account. Cows that are overtaxed and Aveak, yield milk 
of poorer quality than when in vigorous liealth. And as to the question of 
health, endurance and long life, all experience must show that the animals 
wear out sooner, are more liable to disease and mishaps, under the "excessive 
milking system," than when allowed a reasonable time for rest. 

FALL AND WINTER FOOD FOR COWS. 

But what makes the matter worse is, that many dairymen provide no feed 
beyond hay to animals yielding milk during the winter. They are often 
exposed to biting storms of rain, and sleet and piercing winds, all of which 
operate in reducing the tone of health, and in undermining the constitution. 
Hence we not unfrequently see cows wasting away with consumption, and 
meeting with little accidents that prove fiital, because the cows have not the 
vigor to resist them. Some cows, it is true, are inclined to give milk the 
year round, and are difficult to be dried off. Such animals require some- 
thing more than hay ; and an additional feed of ground grain (oat and corn- 
meal mixed), should be commenced to be given in the fall, or at least as soon 
as grass begins to depreciate in its nutritive quality. " Frozen grass and 
moonshine," even though furnished in great abundance, are not the kind of 
food on which deep milkers thrive and are invigorated. Cows, Avhether in 
milk or dry, ought not to be allowed to fall off in flesh late in fall, or at 
the commencement of winter. Thin cows are sensitive to cold, and require 
more food for their winter keep than they do when commencing the season 
with a good' coat of flesh. It is always less expensive to get stock in 
condition during warm weather, or before winter sets in ; and it is therefore 
very poor economy to allow deep milkers to run down thin late in fall, as 
it often entails a good deal of careful nursing all the winter through, in order 
to bring the animals safely over to grass. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 127 

DRAWING ALL THE MILK FROM THE UDDER. 

In drying cows of their milk, attention should be given that all the milk 
be drawn from the udder at any one milking. Some are in the habit of 
only partially drawing tne milk Irom time to time, when drying otf cows. It 
is not a good practice, as the milk left in the udder becomes thick and putrid, 
causing irritation and inflammation, and not unfrequently results in the loss 
of a teat, or a portion of the bag, the next season. When cows are being 
dried off, they should be examined every few days, and their udders completely 
emptied of all accumulated milk ; and with cows supposed to be dry, their 
teats should be tried at least once a week, all winter, to see if there be any 
accumulation of milk. I have had serious losses from trusting to hired help 
in this matter, and taking for granted that it had been properly attended to. 
There is no safety unless the work is done under your own eye, or an exami- 
nation made with your own hand. And it may be remarked that in the 
management of dairy stock, nothing pays better than a frequent oversight of 
the creatures by the master^ eye. Hands, however trusty, sometimes get 
careless and indifferent in their care of stock, which can only be corrected by 
constant oversight on the part of the proprietor. 

SHELTER. 

The importance of keeping stock well housed from storms during inclement 
weather is often under-estimated by dairy farmers. Much more food is 
required for stock exposed to cold, bleak winds and storms of sleet and snow, 
than when properly sheltered. A certain amount of food is needed to keep 
up animal heat, and it is much cheaper to supply this warmth in properly 
constructed stables than to use extra fuel in the shape of hay and grain, to 
keep up heat in the open yard. It has been estimated that an animal wintered 
in the open yard, without any other shelter than that afforded by fences and 
the sides of buildings, will consume a third more food than if properly 
housed. And even wdth the additional food, the animal does not come out so 
well in spring as the sheltered animal on less food. The principle is abund- 
antly established, and ought to be recognized by every one who has had the 
care of stock ; and yet, strange as it may seem, a large proportion of the 
herds are left shivering in the cold from morning till night, under the impres- 
sion, it would seem, that the stable can only be used economically during 
night, or as a place in which to give food. Some insist that this exposure is 
promotive of health, that it imparts vigor and tone to the system, and that 
attention in housing from cold and storms during the day is a species of 
pampering, highly injurious to the constitution and well-being of the animal. 
Unfortunately for those Avho hold these opinions, the record of losses, of 
accidents, of diseases incident to milch stock, are against the theory, and in 
favor of those who are careful to shelter their stock from undue exposure. 

A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF EXERCISE, 

of sun and air, together with freedom from restraint, is without doubt condu- 
cive to health, but the conditions must be favorable or such as the stock enjoy. 



128 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

An animal may be trained to endure cold, exposure and fatigue, and under 
certain conditions, health may be maintained. But you cannot impose, at 
the same time, the duties of maternity and the yielding of large quantities 
of milk, because the waste of the system from these sources is so great as to 
leave only a small amount of vitality to be employed in another direction. 
This is particularly the case with milch cows, which, under a system of 
domestication and breeding, have been educated into a " milky habit." Left 
to themselves under the most favorable circumstances, in warm weather, they 
like but little exercise compared with other classes of animals ; and when 
required to exercise much, always fall off in milk. Warmth, comfort and 
quietness are particularly essential to these animals, and any system of man- 
agement opposed to these conditions, must in a measure, fail to be profit- 
able to the dairyman. 

DISEASES FOLLOAV EXPOSURE. 

Cows that are in milk, or that have been milked late, are peculiarly 
sensitive to cold, and they are frequently injured by being exposed to storms. 
By getting wet, and becoming chilled, pxilmonary complaints and other 
diseases are induced, and thus the farmer has a sick animal on his hands 
which is a source of trouble and anxiety, and not unfrequently a total loss. 
Many of the troubles that come upon cows at the period of calving, may be 
traced directly to exposure during the winter ; and therefore on this account 
alone will it pay the farmer to shelter his stock on the approach of storms, 
either of wind, or snow, or rain. During those days in winter that are sunny 
and wai-m, there may be no objection to allowing stock to run at large in the 
yard a greater portion of the day ; but in extreme cold weather three-quarters 
of an hour in the morning and the same length of time in the afternoon, to 
slake their thirst at the trough, will give them all the exercise needed. The 
remaining portion of the time they will be better in a warm, well-ventilated 
stable, where they can quietly ruminate, without fear of being hooked and 
driven about by master cows. 

Any one who may have closely observed the habits of milch cows kept 
out in the yard during extreme cold weather, it would seem, could not well 
come to a different conclusion. The animals often stand about the buildings, 
pinched up and shivering, the cold exciting to bad temper which they vent 
upon the underlings, severely punishing them without cause, and many times 
to the serious loss of the owner. At such times open the door of your 
stable, and give them choice of entrance, or to remain without ; and if they 
do not seek warm quai'ters they differ from any of the herds with which I 
am acquainted. 

THE LOSSES FROM NEGLECT 

of, and inattention to stock during winter, are so large, that the subject 
cannot be too urgently pressed upon the attention of dairymen. If farmers 
will only take a coinmon-sense view of the question, and seriously count 
the cost of the neglect to which I have referred, I am convinced they will 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 129 

agree with me, that an important saving may be made by the proper sheltering 
of stock during the rigors of winter. 

CAKDING cows. — SCEATCHING POLES* 

The practice of carding cows is of great importance in promoting, health, 
and inci'easing the profits of the dairy. It not only improves the health of 
stock, but leads to habits of neatness and cleanliness about the stables, that 
have an important influence in securing good, clean milk, during the spring 
months, I would furnish cattle with scratching posts in the yard,, and place 
a pole firmly on posts with one end higher than the other,^ to accommodate 
animals of different sizes, that they may pass under and scratch themselves 
as desired. When these are erected, they will soon be found polished from 
frequent use. 

THE STOMACHS OF RUMINANTS PREPARING POOD FOE ASSIMILATION. 

Before discussing questions in regard to feeding stock, it will be well, 
perhaps, to allude briefly to the manner in which ruminants prepare their food 
for assimilation. We quote from Dr. J. V. Smith : — " The cow requires 
large quantities of food ; it remains in her stomach a long time, but the 
relative amount of nutrition needed is small. A carnivorous animal has only 
one stomach, and requires food more condensed and nutritious. Generally 
animals that chew the cud have four stomachs, to fill which requires a great 
bulk of food, and they must be filled or they will collapse,, and the opposite 
walls will meet and destroy each other by their involuntary action. Hence, 
when the food of such animals is too concentrated, health rapidly declines. 
The slops of distillers do not sufficiently distend the stomach, and the milk 
secreted from such diluted food, lacking the elements of nutrition, is doubt- 
less the cause in cities of many diseases of children that partake of it. The 
first stomach or paunch, may be called the receiving organ; it is very 
capacious, and is divided into four compartments. The animal takes its food 
at first with very imperfect mastication, storing it away in the rumen or 
paunch, and at its leisure, converts the food into nutriment. It makes balls 
of its food, by chewing it, then, one after another, lets them down into the 
paunch till this organ may be compared to a basket filled with eggs. The 
food becomes moistened, and is perpetually revolving through the different 
compartments of the rumen, and undergoing important preparation for future 
digestion. The muscular coats of the rumen consist of two layers, running 
in different directions, and these muscles are the mechanical agents by which 
the food is kept in motion, and by running in these different directions they 
are enabled to act upon all the differently-formed cells of this enoi-mous 
viscus. The animal when at rest, or on lying down, commences the process 
of using the food. These animals like company, for they are social. A cow 
generally will not give as much milk when solitary, as when associated with 
her kind. Digestion now commences with a reversed action. One of the 
balls comes back into the mouth, where it is chewed over and made into a 
9 



130 Practical Dairy Husbandrj. 

smaller ball, when it is discharged into a second stomach by another passage, 
the entrance to which is under the animal's control. There a fluid is secreted, 
and mixed with the food so received, and becomes of a yellow color. Here 
the animal has no further control of the food. Thence the food drops into 
the third stomach, which is smaller, and here the food, if not completely 
broken down, is ground into pulp and mixed with a white fluid, when it drops 
into the fourth stomach in a yellow, creamy stream. In this stomach it becomes 
arranged in layers, and by the secretion of another and peculiar fluid, is 
changed into chyme. This form it must of necessity assume before its nutri- 
tive matter can be separated. The solution being complete, or so much so as 
it can be rendered, the food passes through the lower orifice of the stomach 
into the duodenum or first intestine, where its separation into the nutritive or 
innutritive portions is efiected, and the former begins to be taken up by the 
lacteals, and carried into the system." 

IN SUCKING CALVES 

this fourth stomach is the one that is active, and it is the one which is used 
for rennet in coagulating milk for cheese making. In the earlier ages of the 
world, when habits were simple and wants were few, the only cheese used 
was obtained from this stomach of the animal. But afterward it was found^ 
that the material of the stomach itself would curdle milk, and hence came 
the manufacture of cheese. Thus we see the food of these animals must go 
through the various wonderful processes described before it is fitted to furnish 
nutriment. 

BALLS OF HAIR 

are sometimes found in the first stomach, from one inch to four inches in 
diameter. In the spring cattle curry each other, to allay itching, by licking, 
and in so doing they cannot get the hairs off their tongues, and are forced to 
swallow them, when they naturally take the shape of a ball. The animal tries 
to expel it, but the structure of the tongue prevents, when it is swallowed again, 
and is kept going to and fro up and down many times. Of course such a 
foreign substance will often produce disease, which is likely to have many 
names and for which medicines totally inefficacious are prescribed. It is 
obvious that, at the season named, it is very important in the treatment of 
cattle to curry them with the curry comb, to prevent the formation of these 
hair-balls. 

cows IN CLOSE CONFINEMENT. 

In the winter management of dairy stock it has been urged by some that 
the animals winter best when kept confined to the stable most of the time. 
Some dairymen scarcely allow the cows to leave the stable during the whole 
winter. Each cow has a water box before her which is supplied with fresh 
running water as desired. I have examined herds and taken the testimony 
of the advocates of this system, and although cows kept in a well-lighted, 
well-ventilated and cleanly stable, daily curried and bedded with straw 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 131 

appear healthy, still I cannot approve of the system. Such cows may for 
the time give more milk and lay on more flesh, but at the expense of 
health and vitality. Health and physical development are indispensable. 
Locomotion is not only natural but necessary. There is not a respectable 
medical authority in the country that dare recommend the dispensing with 
daily exercise in the air for man and beast where health and physical develop- 
ment are sought after. Weakness and incapacity are induced by confinement. 
We must not sacrifice indispensable ends to temporary profit and conveni- 
ence. Temporary profit is often the wanton violation of physiological law. 
Provide warm sheds, and well ventilated stables, with bedding ; feed well and 
groom well, but allow stock an opportunity for free exercise, at least an hour 
or two each day, whenever the weather permits. 

HOW cows SHOULD GO INTO WINTER QUAKTEES. 

Now we have said that one essential point in the wintering of dairy stock is 
to have the animals in good, thrifty condition, when they go into the stable at 
the commencement of winter. Deep milkers are apt to milk down thin in 
fall, and when there is a disposition to lose flesh in this way, it is always well 
to commence feeding ground grain, oat-meal, bran and ship-stuffs ; since it is 
much easier and less expensive to put on flesh in the fall, when the weather is 
comparatively warm, than in winter. If the animals go into the stables in 
good condition, and are properly dried of their milk, they will continue to 
gain through the winter, on good hay alone. But if they get a daily ration 
of roots — either cai'rots, tui'nijjs, or mangolds — with a little straw to pick at 
from time to time as a change, they will come out in spring in good, healthy, 
serviceable condition. They must be fed and watered with regularity, and I 
prefer that the feeding be three times a day — morning, noon and night. 

In Herkimer Co., where we have been engaged in dairying for seventy 
years, a great many experiments or different methods of management have 
been tried, but our best dairymen say that when cows are wintered on early 
cut hay, with an allowance of roots of some kind, and treated in the way I 
have indicated, the cows almost invariably do well after calving, with no 
trouble from retention of after-birth or from garget. 

EAELT AKD LATE CUT GRASS — RELATIVE VALUE FOR MILCH COWS. 

The opinions of dairymen in regard to the nutritive value of grass cut 
for hay at different stages of maturity have changed materially during the 
last few years. Grass now, in the best dairy districts of New York, is cut 
much earlier than it used to be ; and it is found by experience that cattle 
thrive in winter upon early cut grass properly cured, and come out in spring 
in a much better condition as to flesh and health, than when fed upon grass 
cut when over-ripe. When grass is left to stand till over-ripe there is a large 
amount of woody fiber, which the animal cannot assimilate. Hence, in order 
to get sufl[icient nutriment, a large bulk has to be consumed. It has been 
proved by experiments made by our best Herkimer county farmers, with a 



132 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

view to determine the relative value of early cut grass, that the early cut grass 
ia feeding will give as good results when given without any additional food 
as the late cut grass with a moderate daily ration of meal. 

Some farmers, therefore, prefer to cut a portion of their grass early in 
June, before it comes fairly into flower, curing it without allowing it to get 
wet, and storing it where it can be used specially for spring feeding. In this 
way some avoid feeding grain in spring, when cows begin to come in milk. 

I have made frequent examinations of herds carried through to grass 
without a particle of grain, or indeed any other food except the early cut 
grass, nicely cured, and the animals on turning to grass were in good, fair 
condition. I do not approve, however, of wintering milch cows on one kind 
of food, believing they should have variety, such as roots, straw and coarse 
fodder, in addition to a full supply of the best hay ; and then, when cows 
begin to come in milk, before turning to grass, a little ground meal, bran or 
ship-stuffs should be given daily. I mention these facts in reference to early 
cut grass in order to show that it is much more nutritious than many farmers 
suppose. 

STOCK SHOULD BE WINTERED WELL. 

To have stock make a good yield of milk during the season, it is important 
that the animals be wintered well, and not allowed at any time to get poor 
in flesh, or weak. The cow that comes through the winter weak and debili- 
tated, and reduced in flesh, will require the larger part of the summer to 
recuperate. She will yield not only a small quantity of milk during the time 
she is recuperating, but it will be poor in quality, and hence such an animal 
can render but meager profits even on the cheapest kind of land ; for her 
care, and the labor of milking, &c., will nearly if not quite eat up in cost 
the value of her product. 

THE VARIATION IN THE QUALITY OP MILK, 

on account of poor keep, thinness of flesh, and a debilitated condition of 
the animal, has been very abundantly set forth by the chemists, in their 
analyses of milk from such animals. In such cases the butter has been found 
to fall off from five per cent, to less than two per cent., with a considerable 
reduction also in the casein. The influence of poor keep on the quality of 
milk, is a question not very well understood or appreciated by the majority 
of farmers. The man who keeps his herd poorly, and delivers his milk at the 
factory with those whose herds are well fed and cared for, ought in justice to 
make a proper allowance for an inferior quality of milk. To come in on an 
equality with his neighbor's good milk, is in fact to take from his neighbor a 
certain amount of property without accounting for it. There is no practical 
method as yet, at the factories, for regulating this abuse, except by excluding 
such milk from the factory. But there is another question of considerable 
importance in connection with cutting grass early. The meadows are more 
endui-ing and yield better returns year after year. In New York we find 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 133 

one great cause of meadows running out, 

is allowing the grass to stand until ripe or over-ripe, before cutting. When 
meadows are thinly seeded, and it is not desirable to break them up, the turf 
will be greatly improved by cutting the grass early, just as it comes in flower. 
It is very poor economy to let the grass stand until over-ripe to shed seed, 
hoping to re-seed in this manner and get a good turf. A much better way 
will be to cut the grass early, and then as the fall rains approach go over the 
ground, scattering seed wherever it is needed ; but when the earth freezes 
deeply, and the roots of the grass are liable to be destroyed by frost, this 
operation of seeding can be done early in spring. One great trouble in 

GETTING A GOOD TURF UPON MEADOWS, 

results from using too little seed and too few varieties. When timothy alone 
is to be raised, a half bushel of seed to the acre is none too small a quantity 
to be used. A very successful farmer in Herkimer, who grows large crops 
of timothy, adopts the following system : — If old land (or land upon which 
a hoed crop has been grown), it is plowed in the fall. Then in the spring a 
coat of manure is spread on the surface and worked in with the cultivator, 
and the grass seed sown with some spring grain. 

VALUE OF EARLY. CUT GRASS. 

In regard to the value of early cut grass for dairy stock, the experiments, 
not only in my own dairy but numerous well authenticated statements from 
others, leave not the slightest doubt. The most remarkable result, however, 
on record, was that obtained in the feeding of the Vermont cow. Taking 
into consideration that the animal received no grain, and was fed nothing but 
grass and hay, her record is worthy of a place beside the celebrated Oakes 
cow. The Oakes cow, it will be remembered, produced four hundred and 
eighty pounds of butter besides suckling her calf for five weeks, and all 
between the fifth of April and the twenty-fifth of September. She received, 
however, in addition to her full allowance of grass, a bushel of corn-meal per 
week, and all her own milk skimmed. The Vermont cow, upon grass and hay 
alone, produced during the year 1865, five hundi-ed and four pounds of butter, 
and the following is her record, given by her owner, Mr. A. Scott of Crafts- 
bury, Vermont : 

Dec. 30tb, 1864, to Apr. 20tli, 1865, 200 lbs. @ 60 cents per lb $120.00 

" 54.00 

" 16.00 

" 17.00 

" 16.50 

" 11.00 



Apr. " 


" " Aug. 


" 180 lbs. @ 30 


Aug. " 


" " Sept. 


40 lbs. @ 40 


Sept. " 


" " Oct. 


34 lbs. @ 50 


Oct. " 


" " Nov. 


30 lbs. @ 55 


Nov. " 


" " Dec. 


20 lbs. @ 55 



Total for the year, - 504 lbs. $234.50 

This cow is described by her owner as of good size, and of native breed, 
and when purchased, four years before, was considered a very ordinary cow. 



134 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The Oakes cow was also of native breed. In the Transactions of the New 
York State Agricultural Society, we find a notice of several cows remarkable 
for their large yield of butter during a short period, but it is not stated upon 
what feed the animals were kept. Thus we have the Nourse cow of Danvers, 
that produced fourteen pounds of butter per week for sixteen weeks ; the 
Sanderson cow of Waltham, fourteen pounds weekly for the same length of 
time ; the Hazelton cow of Haverhill, the Bosset cow of Northampton, and 
Buxton of Danvers, the first two yielding fourteen pounds, and the last 
sixteen pounds weekly for twelve weeks. Geo. Kerr, of Ontario Co., N. Y., 
reports nineteen pounds of butter from a native cow in one week, and sixteen 
pounds weekly for the two succeeding weeks. T. Comstock of Oneida Co., 
from a three-fourths native and one-fourth Durham cow, seventeen pounds five 
ounces in one week, and C. D. Miller of Madison Co., twenty and one-half 
pounds in one week ; and from the same source we learn that G. A. Mann 
of Onondaga Co., made sixty-seven and a-half pounds of butter from the 
milk of one cow, in thirty days. 

The Vermont Cow came in milk on the 15th of December, and on the 
25th Mr. Scott commenced setting the milk. The first nine days she made 
twenty-three pounds of butter, and in twenty-six days she had filled a tub of 
fifty-two pounds. In the detailed statement which Mr. S. gives in reference 
to the feed and management of this cow, we find considerable difierence from 
the usual practice, and indeed from the commonly received opinion of farmers 
on this question. He believes as much butter can be made in the barn by 
having the cow come in in winter and fed upon hay, as in the summer upon 
grass, and the remarkable results obtained seem to prove it. He does not 
believe in feeding meal to cows, and has not fed any for the last five years. 
He remarks : — " If I had a cow as good as one I spoiled with meal a few 
years ago, I think, with my present treatment, she would make three 
pounds of butter a day, instead of two and a-half as the cow alluded to above 
has done." 

MR. SCOTt's management OF COWS. 

The management of his stock is as follows : The cows are fed on hay three 
times a day, no more or less ; are watered morning and evening, and then put 
back into the stall, and kept there night and day during the winter. The 
amount of hay fed to this cow did not vary a pound from twenty-five pounds 
a day ; smaller cows take about twenty pounds. The hay that cattle eat, he 
says, does them little good until they raise it up and chew it over in the cud ; 
then it goes to form milk or flesh, as the case may be. If the animals have a 
comfortable place to lie down in they commence chewing it over as soon as 
they get their meals eaten, and when twelve o'clock comes they are ready for 
their meal again, and so on until evening. There should always be regularity 
in feeding and watering. 

He describes his barn as double-boarded, outside and in, with double 
windows, and so ventilated that the temperature may be controlled at pleasure, 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 135 

even in the coldest weather. It is thrown open all round or shut up, just as 
the weather happens to be, and is kept above freezing point. But another 
important point, from which the highest results named have been reached, is 
in securing the hay in such a manner that a large percentage of the nutritive 
matter is retained. Haying is begun about the 8th of June, and finished, if 
possible, by the 25th. Another crop is cut the last of August, and in some 
places a third crop in September ; and he well remarks that instead of com- 
mencing haying about the 4th of July and finishing in August and September, 
as has been the practice from time immemorial, all the grass ought to be cut 
and in the barn by July. Here then, after all, is a part of the secret of Mr. 
Scott's success. It is in making the hay so that it shall be equal in nutritive 
value, or nearly so, to the fresh grass of pastures. There can scarcely be a 
doubt but that immense losses are sustained by our best farmers in this 
matter of harvesting the hay crop. We do not commence harvesting early 
enough, but wait until much of the nutritive value of the grass has been 
wasted and used to form woody fiber, under the impression that we are 
getting more bulk and therefore more available food. Some years ago Mr. 
Lewis of Herkimei', abandoned the use of meal and grain in spring, believing 
better results were obtained from early cut grass properly cured. I went out 
to Mr. Lewis's farm in spring, and made a personal examination of his herd, 
for the purpose of seeing how far flesh and condition could be maintained in 
the way suggested, and I found the animals as thrifty as had been represented. 
The experiment of Mr. Scott is valuable in this : it demonstrates the relative 
value of early cut and late cut grasses, for no one can doubt the fact that his 
hay must have contained a more than ordinary amount of nutrition to produce 
the result — a result, we venture to say, which could not be realized from late 
cutting. Most farmers are aware that hay as usually cut and stored is 
insufiicient to keep milch cows in a full flow of milk for any considerable 
length of time. When no additional food is given they fall oflT rapidly in 
flesh, and the milk depreciates in quantity and quality, even if the cow has 
all the hay she can consume. 

INJURY FROM FEEDING CONCENTRATED FOOD. 

There is another question raised by the experiment of Mr. Scott, and that 
is, to what extent milch cows are injured by feeding concentrated food? He 
asserts that he spoiled a cow by feeding meal. Of course cows are liable to 
be injured by over-feeding ; but we are not prepared to admit that a judicious 
use of meal will injure a cow for milk. The feeding of meal may be, and 
doubtless is, more expensive than grass cut and prepared as he suggests ; and 
admitting that such hay makes the most milk, it does not prove that meal fed 
judiciously will spoil the animal, without it be from over-feeding. Cows 
doubtless are injured and their lives shortened by excessive feeding of meal 
and grains, but if hay is poor or cut after half of its nutritive elements have 
passed away, the waste must be made up in some way in feeding, or the 
animal runs down, and when turned to pasture, is a long while recuperating. 



1.36 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



CUTTING AND COOKING THE FOOD, 



i 



But where considerable quantities of straw and coarse fodder are raised 
on the farm, it may be of advantage to utilize it by cutting and cooking. In 
the English dairies, as I have observed, stock is mostly wintered upon cut 
straw, pulped tuniips, and oil cake. The food is not generally cooked. In 
using cooked straw, a certain proportion of meal, bran, or ship stuffs is added 
to make up a nutritive equivalent equal to good meadow hay, and the experi- 
menters pretty generally agree that the gain by cutting and cooking is about 
one-third ; that is, that the expense of food is one-third less than when hay 
alone is used in the usual way. I have referred to this system in the account 

1 gave of the Tbuesdale barn. A few years ago Hon. Wm. I. Skinnek 
of Little Falls, N. Y., set up machinery and experimented during one 
winter, to satisfy himself in regard to the system. He divided his stock, 
feeding forty-four head upon straw and shippings, and twenty-six head upon 
hay. The forty-four head were consuming four hundred and forty pounds of 
oat straw and three hundred and fifty-two pounds of shippings per day, and 
two men were employed to cut and steam the food and take care of the 
stock. The whole expense was as follows : 

440 lbs. straw, @ $10 pel- ton $2 20 

352 lbs. shippings, @ 23^c., niurket price 7 92 

2 men, at 9 shillings per day each 2 25 

Wood, used for cooking per day. 39 

$12 76 
or twenty-nine "Cents for each head per day. Each cow received ten pounds 
straw and eight pounds shipping per day. The twenty-six cows consumed 
six hundred and fifty pounds of hay per day, and the expense for this lot was 
as follows : 

650 lbs. hay, @ $25 per tou $8 123^ 

Labor, 1 man, 9 shillings per day >. 1 123^ 

$9 25 

or thirty-five cents per day for each cow, showing a balance in favor of straw 
and shippings of six cents per day for each head. Cut straw averages about 
five pounds to the bushel, and cut hay eight pounds. The eight pounds of 
shippings make a little over ten quarts. I examined this stock several times 
during the winter, and to all appearance those fed on the cooked food were 
plump and doing better than the lot on hay. The several descriptions of 
feed used are put at the market price that winter. 

MR. E. w. Stewart's experiments. 

Mr. E. W. Stewart of Erie Co., iN". Y., who has experimented largely 
in cooking food for cattle, says : — " Steaming renders moldy hay, straw and 
corn-stalks sweet and palatable, thus restoring their value ; renders peas and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 137 

beans agreeable food for horses as well as other stock, and thus enables the 
feeder to combine more nitrogenous food in the diet of his animals. Half 
hay and half straw, mixed and steamed, more than equals hay unsteamed. 
When cows are kept in milk through the winter, cooking their food will 
greatly increase the yield of milk." He estimates the saving in food for each 
cow in milk at $8.00 for the season. Again he says, that a mixture of oil and 
pea meal and bran makes an excellent food to produce milk, and keep up the 
condition of the cow ; one and a-half pounds of oil and pea meal and three 
pounds of bran mixed with ten pounds of hay steamed per day for each cow 
weighing eight hundred pounds, will generally be sufficient. This, he says, has 
been determined by his experiments, long and faithfully tried. And, he adds, 
this may be thought a small quantity from which a cow of that size, at her 
best season, could produce four gallons of milk and keep up her condition ; 
but it must be remembered that four gallons of milk contain only about four 
pounds dry matter, which will leave a supply for the thrift of the cow. And 
when this sixteen pounds of hay, oil, and pea meal and bran, are thoroughly 
cooked together the nutriment is all extracted by the animal. In experi- 
menting to determine what amount of bran or meal upon straw would make 
it equal to hay, he found two quarts bran and one quart corn meal on one 
bushel of oat, wheat or barley straw rendered it equal to the best of hay. 
When considerable quantities of coarse fodder are raised on the farm, doubt- 
less cutting and steaming could be practiced with considerable advantage, but 
it is a question whether it will pay to introdiice machinery for cooking early 
cut hay, and the general impression of our dairymen is, that for this kind of 
food, considering the extra labor and expense in cooking, there would be no 
advantage. 

cows CALVING. 

The practice is now quite common in New York to allow cows to drop 
their calves while confined in the stanchion. The practice is not to be recom- 
mended. It is better as this critical time approaches, to sepax'ate the cow 
from the herd, placing her in a roomy stable, where she may have perfect 
freedom, and where she may be at liberty to perform the necessary office of 
cleansing the young calf and giving it suck. In most cases parturition will 
be natural and easy, and, as Mr. Flint remarks, " the less a cow is disturbed 
or meddled with the better." Soon after calving a bran mashj made with 
tepid water, should be given to the cow, which operates favorably on the 
expulsion of the afterbirth. 

SPBING AND SUMMER FEED FOR MILCH COWS. 

There is a great difference of opinion among dairymen in reference to the 
kinds of grain best adapted to milch cows in spring. Dairymen generally 
suit their own convenience in this matter, without much regard to the opinion 
of others. If they have raised and have on hand a surplus of corn, or barley, 
or oats, they are very apt to feed one or the other as best suits their conven- 
ience at the time ; and if grain is to be purchased, the matter of prices has 



138 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

more of a controlling influence than what is best adapted to the animal 
economy. So widely do people differ on this question that many prefer to 
feed in spring nothing but hay, if of good quality, claiming that the cows will 
be healthier when turned to grass, and that the net profits from the dairy will 
be greater than where grain is used in spring feeding. In other words, that 
the value of the grain fed in spring more than balances receipts from the 
extra quantity of cream and butter produced ; and hence grain feeding in 
spring must be very poor economy. Another class of dairymen, who claim 
to have looked pretty closely to the profits to be realized from milch cows, 
and to have compared results one year with another, say that nothing is 
gained by having cows " come in milk " as early as February or March. They 
prefer the months of April and May, as not only more agreeable, but actually 
resulting in greater profits. They argue that cows " coming in milk " early 
in the season, are more exposed to cold and storms which must injure the 
health and weaken the constitution of the animal ; that it sooner wears out 
the cow, and yields no more net profit than when a later date is had for 
commencing the business of dairying. Why, they say, should one do extra 
work in milking and nursing stock through the bad weather of February 
and March, when the result from stock calving thus early, not only is no 
pecuniary gain, but brings positive injury to the herd ? 

Others insist that greater profits are realized when cheese and butter 
making is commenced early in the season. But if we assume that cows are 
to come in milk as early as March, then some kind of food other than hay 
— at least hay as usually harvested — seems to be imperatively demanded, 
in order to keep stock in decent condition as to health and strength, until 
it comes to grass. 

THE SECKBTION' OF MILK A HABIT. 

Now, the secretion of milk is in some respects a matter of habit or educa- 
tion, and should be promoted and kept up from its first flow. This cannot 
be accomplished on late cut hay alone, since the cow cannot be induced to 
consume the quantity necessary for her maintenance and a full yield of milk 
of good quality. This will be made evident by comparing the constituents 
of milk and those of ordinary meadow hay. Suppose the cow is yielding 
but eight quarts or twenty pounds of milk per day. This will contain a little 

over two and a-half pounds of dry material, as follows : 

lbs. 

Of casein 1000 

Of butter 0.625 

Of sugar 0.875 

Of phosphate of lime 0.045 

Other mineral ingredients 0.055 

Total.... 3.600 

Twenty pounds of ordinary hay contain of albuminous matter, fibrine and 
casein, &c., say about 1.85 ; oil, butter, &c., say 5.36. So it will be seen that 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 139 

thig quantity of hay (considering that a part of the nutritive matter is not 
assimilated, and passes off in the excrement), will be mostly needed for the 
manufacture of the milk alone, while a like quantity and more must be used 
for her maintenance. Experience as well as science amply demonstrates 
the fact that late cut hay when used as an exclusive food for milch cows 
is insufficient to produce milk rich in quality and large in quantity. Mr. J. 
B. La WES of Rothamsted, England, in a recent paper on the 

EXPENDITUKE OF FOOD BY EESPIEATION, 

says: — "If there is one thing which is more firmly established by scientific 
inquiry tljan another, it is that actual waste or expenditure of substance is 
going on during the whole period of our existence, and that unless this waste 
be compensated by food, death must quickly ensue. 

" The nearest approach to the continuance of life without food is in the 
case of those animals which pass through a period of hybernation. A dor- 
mouse for instance, sleeps through a great part of the winter; the little 
animal becomes cold to the touch, shows no sign of respiration, and is to all 
appearance dead. Nevertheless, careful experiments have proved that slow 
respiration is going on all the time, accompanied with gradual loss of 
substance ; and if the cold weather be sufficiently prolonged, or the animal 
be subjected by artificial means to a continuance of low temperature, death 
will take place ; if not from other causes, at any rate as soon as there ceases 
to be a supply of accumulated fat, or other material within the body, avail- 
able for the purposes of respiration. 

" Indeed, the resources of the body itself, unreplenished by food, can 
supply the necessary material for Avaste for only a limited period. The 
minimum amount of food required to maintain existence will vary for a given 
live weight according to the description of the animal, the description of the 
food, the conditions of life and individual peculiarities. But, to say nothing 
of other losses, as part of the substance of the body passes off into the 
atmosphere with every respiration, it is absolutely certain that death cannot 
be far off whenever the supply of food is stopped. 

" The fact of a constant expenditure of food by respiration has a very 
important bearing on the economy of the farm. Every animal that is kept, 
whether for labor or for the production of meat, requires a given amount of 
food for the mere maintenance of life. If it receive more than this, the 
remainder may serve to enable the working animal to perform his labor or 
the meat-making animal to increase in substance and in weight, and conse- 
quently in value. 

" It may be mentioned, in passing, that direct experiments have proved 
that the expenditure by respiration is very much greater within a given time 
while an animal is awake than while it is asleep ; and again, very much 
greater in exercise than when at rest. 

" Confining attention to the case of the animals fed for the butcher, it will 



140 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



be obvious that the economy of the feeding process will be the greater the 
less the amount of food expended by respiration in the production of a given 
amount of increase ; and it is equally obvious that one ready and efficient 
means of lessening the j)roportiou of the waste or expenditure to the increase 
produced, is to lessen, as far possible, the time taken to produce it ; in other 
words, to fatten as quickly as possible. 

" An example taken from the ordinary practice of the farm clearly illus- 
trates the point, and shows the great importance of bearing the facts in mind. 
From the results of numerous experiments made at Rothamsted, it may be 
assumed that on the average a pig weighing one hundred pounds will, if 
supplied with as much barley meal as he will eat, consume five hundred 
pounds of it, and double his weight — that is, increase from one hundred 
pounds to two hundred pounds live weight, in sixteen or seventeen weeks. 

The following table shows the amount of dry or solid constituents in the five hundred 
pounds of barley meal, and how they will be disposed of in the case supposed : 

500 POUNDS OP BARLEY MEAL PRODITCE 100 POUNDS INCREASE AND SUPPLY. 



Nitrogenous substance, 

Non-nitrogenous substance, 

Mineral matter, 

Total dry substance. 



In Food. 



Lbs. 

52 

357 

11 



420 



In 100 

Inckease. 



In Man- 
ure. 



Lbs. 

7.0 
66.0 

0.8 



73.8 



Lbs. 
I 59.8 
10.2 



70.0 



In Kespi- 

EATION, 



Lbs. 
276.2 



276.3 



" From the figures in the table we learn that the four hundred and twenty 
pounds of dry or solid substance which the five hundred pounds of barley 
meal contain, about seventy-four are stored up in the one hundred pounds of 
increase in live weight, about seventy are recovered in the manure, and two 
hundred and seventy-six, or nearly two-thirds of the whole, are given off" into 
the atmosphere by respiration and perspiration — that is to say, are expended 
in the mere sustenance of the living meat and manure-making machine, 
during the sixteen or seventeen weeks required to produce the one hundred 
pounds of increase. 

" But now let us suppose that instead of allowing the pig to have so much 
barley meal as he will eat, we make the five hundred pounds of barley meal 
last many more weeks. The result would be that the animal would appro- 
priate a correspondingly larger proportion of the food for the purposes of 
respiration and perspiration, and a correspondingly less proportion in the 
production of increase. In other words, if the five hundred pounds of barley 
meal be distributed over a longer period of time, it will give less increase in 
live weight, and a larger proportion of it will be employed in the mere main- 
tenance of the life of the animal. Indeed, if the period of consumption of 
five hundred pounds of meal be sufiiciently extended, the result will be that 



Practical Dairy Husbandbt. 141 

no increase whatever will be produced, and that the whole of the food, 
excepting the portion obtained as manure, will be expended in the mere 
maintenance of the life of the animal. The conclusion is obvious, that 
provided the fattening animal can assimilate the food, a given amount of 
increase will be obtained with a smaller expenditure of constituents by 
respiration, the shorter the time taken to produce it. In fact, by early 
maturity and the r£,pid fattening of stock, a vast saving of food is effected. 
It is true that the flavor and quality of the meat of the one-year old sheep 
or the two or three-year old bullock, are not as good as that of the three or 
four-year old sheep, or the four or five-year old ox. But it is obvious that 
the mutton and beef of the older animals can only be produced with a much 
greater expenditure of food, and generally at an increased money cost, which 
must put them beyond the reach of a great majority of consumers." 

HORSF all's experiments. 

Some of the most valuable experiments for feeding milch cows are those 
made by Mr. Horsfall of England. By affording a full supply of the 
elements of food adapted to the maintenance and produce of the animal, he 
was enabled to obtain as much milk, and that which was as rich in butter 
during winter as in summer. He used, to some extent, cabbages, mangolds, 
shorts, and other substances rich in the constituents of cheese and butter. 
" My food for milch cows," he says, " after having undergone various modifica- 
tions, has for two seasons consisted of rape cake, five pounds, and bran, two 
pounds for each cow, mixed into a sufiicient quantity of bean straw, oat straw, 
and shells of oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with 
as much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and 
blended together, and after being well steamed, are given to the animal in 
a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one and a-half pounds 
per cow, according to circumstances, of bean meal, which he is charged to give 
to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk, those in full milk getting two 
pounds each per day, others but little. It is dry and mixed with the steamed 
food, on its being dealt out separately. When this is eaten up, green food 
is given, consisting of cabbages from October to December, kohl-rabi till 
February, and mangolds till grass time," His cows under this treatment 
usually yield from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) per 
day, for about eight months after calving, when they fall off in milk, but 
gain flesh up to the time of calving. From these experiments, conducted in 
a careful manner, it would seem that food rich in albuminous matter produced 
the best results. Bean meal contains twenty-eight per cent, of this substance. 
Beans are not used in this country as food for stock, but if we select other 
grains, rich in cheesy matter, the principle may be carried out, and satisfactory 
results obtained. 

The three grains containing albuminous or flesh-forming matter in largest 
proportion next to beans (if peas aro excepted), ai*e rye, oats and barley, each 



142 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

containing from ten to fourteen and a-half per cent. ; these, when ground into 
meal and mixed in equal quantities, taking their usual market value into con- 
sideration, are perhaps the best that can be selected. My own experience 
in the use of these grains as a spring food for milch cows corresponds with that 
of others as giving most satisfactory results. I have used oats and peas ground 
into meal together, and could wish for no better feed, but the cost was more, 
which was not met by increased production of milk. Bai'ley and oats ground 
and mixed together have also been used with good results. Corn-meal I deem 
objectionable, on account of its heating nature. Its influence at times is very 
deleterious, having been known to lessen the quantity and injure the quality 
of milk, and in some instances dry up the cows. Bran is a very valuable feed 
for milch cows ; it is rich in phosphates and nitrogenous or flesh-forming 
material, and when mingled with oat meal, gives the very best results. 

FEEDING GRAIISr IN SUMMER. 

On the question of feeding cows grain through the summer, the general 
opinion among dairymen is, that it does not pay so long as the herds have an 
abundance of good grass. When shorts and bran can be obtained at cheap 
rates, and feed is beginning to fail, they may doubtless be employed with 
profit. Mingled with the hay and fed to cows, the milk gives a larger per- 
centage of cream, while the quantity of milk also is increased. 

The most natural, and of course the healthiest food for milch cows in 
summer is the green grass of our pastures. When cows are giving an extra 
quantity of milk, and in consequence are milking down thin and poor, it will 
be advisable to use concentrated food. The principle to be understood is that 
milk of good quality and large quantity depends upon food, and that the 
condition and strength of the animal must at all times be kept up. If allowed 
to run down and become poor and weak, we are undermining the constitution 
of the cow, and by inattention and neglect defeating the ends by which our 
best interests are to be promoted. 

TURNING TO GRASS. 

When cows are first turned to grass in spring, if feed is abundant, they 
should not be allowed in the pasture but a few hours each day, for several 
days — the change of food should be gradual. Serious troubles have some- 
times resulted from inattention to this point, especially when turning cows 
into luxuriant afterfeed in autumn. 

SALTING cows. 

Another important matter in the management of dairy stock is to have it 
properly provided with salt. The best way to salt dairy cows is to have the 
salt in some place conveniently located for stock, Avhere daily access may be 
had to it, and the animals allowed to take whatever their appetites crave. It 
may be placed in boxes arranged in the feed alley of the stables, or in troughs 
in the shed, or open yard. Where cows have free access to salt, they soon 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 143 

regulate their appetite to the daily use of small quantities of it, taking no 
more than is required to promote health. Animals require more or less salt, 
according to the character of their food, and the practice of salting at certain 
intervals is often injurious, since they are liable to ovex'feed of it, causing 
excessive scouring and derangement of health. This is particularly the case 
when salt is thrown out to stock indiscriminately in the fields at intervals of 
a week or more. In such cases the master cows not unfrequently gorge 
themselves, preventing the weaker animals from getting a due supply, and 
thus one part of the herd is injured by overfeeding, and the other part by 
not obtaining what is needed. When the animals have access to salt, nature 
dictates as to its use, and hence the best results, both as to health and yield 
of milk, follow. Salt is very necessary for milch cows. Without it the milk 
becomes scanty and imperfect. It is an important element in the blood, and 
furnishes the soda necessary to hold the cheesy part of the milk in solution. 
Haidlin found in one thousand -pounds of milk, analyzed by him, nearly half 
a pound of free soda, and over a third of a pound of chloride of sodium. 
There was also one and three-quarter pounds of chloride of potassium. There 
are various pui-poses in the animal economy that require salt, and cows in 
milk should at all times have free access to it. Perhaps the greatest necessity 
for its use is in spring, when cows are first turned to pasture. The food then 
is rather deficient in saline matter, and does not furnish sufl[icient for a large 
quantity of milk. As grass becomes more mature the mineral elements are 
more abundant, and there is less desire on the part of animals for salt. It is 
on this account and because cows have been dried of their milk, that in 
winter much less salt is required in the dairy than in summer. From experi- 
ments that have been made it has been found that in May and June, when 
milch cows have been deprived of salt for several days, the milk shrunk from 
one to two per cent, in quantity, and from two to four per cent, in quality. 
Later in the season the experiments showed less difference. Thus it will be 
seen that dairy stock, to produce the best results, should have a daily supply 
of salt, and that the quantity is much better regulated by the animal than it 
can be by the stock-keeper who doles it out at intervals. 

WATER FOR COWS. 

I have alluded to the importance of providing milch cows with good 
water, and something more may be said on this point, because it is one of the 
secrets of success, which the great majority of dairymen to-day do not fully 
comprehend. The importance of providing an abundance of water for cows 
in milk cannot be over-estimated. Every practical dairyman must have 
observed how rapidly cows shrink of their milk in hot, dry weather, when 
water is scarce and the animals do not get their usual supply. But although 
in such cases the cause of milk falling ofi" is traced to its true source, many 
forget to take a hint from such observation in their management of milch 
stock during the summer and fall. Cows of course will live where the daily 



144 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



I 



supply of water is limited, and by yielding a less quantity of milk, they adapt 
themselves to the circumstances under which they are placed. And if water 
is not abundant or is situated in out of the way places, where it is not easy 
of access, the animals soon educate themselves to get along with a much less 
quantity than they would were it placed befoi-e them in abundance. Up to a 
certain point, the animal will accommodate herself without complaint to the 
conditions, and it often happens that because cows show no very marked 
uneasiness nor falling off in flesh, it is supposed they get all the water which 
they require, when in point of fact they are taking only a limited supply. 
Herds thus situated do not yield large returns. The fault is not in the cows, 
but in their management. ISTow, milch cows should rather be induced to take 
all the water they will, and at no time should they be allowed to suffer from 
thirst. A cow that gives a large quantity of milk, must of necessity require 
more water, other things being equal, than the cow that gives only a small 
quantity of milk, for we must remember that of the constituents of milk 
eighty-seven parts or thereabout are water. To what extent the quantity of 
milk can be increased and at the same time a good quality be secured, by 
inducing the animal to take an abundant quantity of liquid, is still a question 
undetermined, but that milk of good quality can in this manner be increased 
and without injury to the animal, there is not the slightest doubt. Upon 
this point we have some interesting experiments by M. Dancel, as communi- 
cated to the French Academy of Sciences. He found that by inciting cows 
to drink large quantities of water, the quantity of milk yielded by them can 
be increased several quarts per day without materially injuring its quality. 
The amount of milk obtained, he says, is approximately proportional to the 
quantity of water drank. Cows which, when stall fed with dry fodder, gave 
only from nine to twelve quarts of milk per day, at once produced from 
twelve to fourteen quarts daily, when their food was moistened by mixing 
with it from eighteen to twenty-three quarts of water per day. Besides 
this water taken with the food, the animals were allowed to drink at the same 
intervals as before, and their thirst was excited by adding to their fodder a 
small quantity of salt. The milk produced under the water regimen, after 
having been carefully analyzed and examined as to its chemical and physical 
properties, was adjudged to be of good quality, and excellent butter was 
obtained from it. 

The precise proportion of water which can thus be given to cows with 
advantage, he says, is a point not readily determinable, since the appetite for 
drink differs very considerably in different animals. But by observing the 
degree of the appetite for drink in a number of cows, by taking note of the 
quantity of water habitually consumed by each of the animals in the course 
of twenty-four hours, and contrasting this quantity with that of the milk 
produced, M. Dancel asserts that any one can see that the yield of milk is 
directly proportionate to the quantity of water absorbed. He asserts, more-^ 
over, that a cow that does not habitually drink so much as twenty-seven 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 145 

quarts of water per day — and he has met with such — is actually and necessa- 
rily a poor milker. She will give only from five and a-half to seven quarts 
per day. But all the cows he has seen which drank as much as fifty quarts 
of water daily, were excellent milkers, yielding from nineteen to twenty-three 
quarts of milk. In his opinion the quantity of drink consumed by a cow is 
a valuable test of her worth as a milk producer. 

Now, whether the inferences drawn by Dancbl from his experiments be 
strictly true in any particular or applicable in all cases, need not be discussed 
for the present, but they illustrate in some degree at least, facts familiar to 
practical men. The most common observer must have taken note that in the 
human family the mother suckling her infant requires and consumes more 
liquids than she did before or after her period of nursing. And the practical 
dairyman must have been dull indeed if he has not observed the difference in 
the appetite of cows for water before and after they have begun to give milk. 
The lesson which practical dairymen should learn from these facts is, that 
cows to yield the best returns must be provided with an abundance of pure 
water, so located that it is easy of access at all times. In fine, that induce- 
ments held out in this way for cows to drink, are a paying investment to 
dairymen. But while milch cows can be made to yield larger returns by a 
judicious use of liquids, we cannot recommend pushing the point to that 
excess which may affect the health of stock or reduce the quality of milk to 
a low standard, 

FALL FEEDING. 

As pastures begin to fail the latter part of July, soiling in part either with 
green corn fodder, lucerne, millet, oats, or clover must be resorted to, for 
keeping up a flow of milk, until cows go to the aftermath. It is essential that 
the flow of milk be kept up, for if cows are allowed to fall off in milk at this 
season of the year, it will be impossible to bring them back again by fall 
feeding. I need not discuss this point further, and I have only a word more 
in relation to the fall treatment of stock, since it is here that many dairymen 
make very grave mistakes. As the season advances occasional frosts begin 
to appear, and although grass may be abundant it is flashy and the frosts 
injure materially its nutritive value. 

At this season more than any other cows are apt to milk down poor, and 
often before the dairyman is fully aware of the fact. If it is desirable to 
keep up a flow of milk, a little bran or ground grain can be used with profit ; 
even a few nubbins of corn fed daily will prove serviceable in keeping uj) the 
strength and condition of the animal. But this is not all ; the cold storms 
and frosty nights are injurious unless the animals are sheltered. Cows in 
milk, as I have remarked, are susceptible to cold, and if not protected from 
the inclement weather fall off rapidly in flesh and milk ; even in summer a 
cold rain storm lessens the quantity of milk, as every dairyman must have 
observed ; but towards the approach of winter, after yielding milk for several 
months, the general tone of the system is reduced, and the animal is unable 
10 



146 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

to withstand sudden changes without being injuriously affected. Stock that 
is reduced in flesh at the commencement of winter, will require at least a 
quarter more food to bring it through to grass than it would did it 
start in high condition. This fact is lost sight of by many who suffer their 
cattle to run down in the fall, milking them late, and allowing them to be 
exposed to all kinds of weather. In cold, stormy nights during the fall cows 
will do better in the stable, even with no feed, than to be left out exposed to 
the inclemencies of the weather. What little food they pick up at such times 
is not of much account ; they will seek out some sjDot that affords a partial 
protection from the storm and cold, huddle together, and stand there shiver- 
ing and discontented till morning. It is at such times that more or less injury 
is done to the underlings of the herd from being hooked and driven about by 
master cows. Perhaps at no season of the year does stock require more care 
and attention than late in the fall, and at no season is it so generally neg- 
lected. Many never think of housing an animal at this season so long as the 
ground remains uncovered with snow, and many fancy they are saving fodder 
by withholding food so long as there are patches here and there of frozen 
aftermath, that are not eaten down. Such persons are often found complain- 
ing that their hay rapidly wastes away after feeding has commenced, and is 
wanting in nutrition ; that their stock comes out thin in spring, and the yield 
of milk during the summer is less than it should be. They have no definite 
idea where the trouble lies ; it is either in the hay or in the season, or in the 
cows, and they mourn over their bad luck, when in fact the real cause of all 
the trouble arose from neglect and want of care and attention in the fall 
treatment of stock. 

Cows that are expected to yield largely must have careful treatment and 
liberal feed — they must be protected from the inclement weather in roomy, well- 
ventilated stables. The importance of comfortable, well-lighted and well- ventil- 
ated stables for milch cows is imperfectly understood, although much has been 
written on the subject. It should be remembered that a lai-ge share of the 
food eaten is used in furnishing warmth to the animal, and if we can supply 
warmth by artificial means, it will be equivalent to a certain percentage of 
food. Good shelter, therefore, serves in part for food. It has been well 
remarked that " beside the actual loss of food from the increased amount 
required under exposure to cold, there is a further loss in milk from the feeling 
of discomfort. The secretions are always disturbed by influences that cause 
pain or uneasiness, and every shiver of a half-frozen cow will make itself 
visible in the milk pail." It will often therefore, be a matter of economy for 
dairymen to commence feeding cabbages, the tops of roots, or small quantities 
of grain, just as soon as the grasses of the pasture have been touched with 
frosts. A daily allowance of bran, shorts, or ground feed of barley and oats, 
or oats and corn, in the proportion of two parts oats to one of corn, will be 
of the greatest service in keeping up a flow of milk and at the same time 
keeping the animal in health and condition. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 147 

There are many more topics in regard to the management of stock which 
I could have wished to discuss, but enough perhaps has been said to give an 
outline of the more important requisites in this branch of dairy management. 

KAISIN'G CALVES. 

In raising calves they should always have a good start, and for this pur- 
pose I know of nothing equal to milk as it is drawn from the cow. Some 
people recommend separating the calf from the cow a day or two after it is 
dropped. I think it should be allowed to run with the cow and have all 
the milk it can take for at least four or five days. Ordinarily the cows milk 
will not be in a proper condition for human food under four or five days from 
the time of dropping her calf, though many dairymen who are anxious to 
make the most out of the milk insist that it is good enough for cheese-making 
at the fourth milking. 

After the calf is taken from the cow it should be generously fed with new 
milk until it is two weeks old at least. This should be the earliest period at 
which the commencement of any substitute for new milk ought to be given. 
I should prefer to feed new milk for some time longer, but still very good 
calves may be raised by compounding a food for them a little less expensive 
than new milk. 

If skim milk can now be afforded, the calves will thrive on liberal feeding, 
but the cheese dairymen often feel that even skim milk is too expensive to be 
long continued, and are not satisfied till the diet of the calf is reduced to whey. 
Now, if whey and oil meal be properly prepared, it can be made to sei've as 
a very good substitute for milk. The whey should be dipped off" when sweet 
from the vat, then bring it to the boiling point and turn it upon the oil meal. 
Let the mixture stand till night, and then feed. In the morning, whey sweet 
from the vat may be fed. At the commencement a little less than a pint of 
oil meal per day will be sufficient for four calves. This may be gradually 
increased till each calf has a daily ration of half a pint. At first it is better 
not to feed calves all the whey they Avill drink at a time. A large feed of 
whey cloys the appetite and deranges the health. A half pail of whey at 
first is enough for a feed, which may be increased to three-fourths of a pail 
and a pail, as the calf increases in age. Two meals a day, if the calf runs in 
a good pasture, is sufficient. Calves fed in this way ought not to be weaned 
until they can get a good bite of afterfeed from the early cut meadows. It 
is important to keep them in a growing, thrifty condition, with no check. 
When weaned earlier, their growth is often checked by reason of short, dry 
or innutritions feed in pastures. When whey cannot be had, the following 
substitute for milk in feeding calves is recommended by the Irish Farmers' 
Gazette: — "Take three quarts of linseed meal and four quarts of bean meal, 
and mix with thirty quarts of boiling water, when it is left to digest for 
twenty-four hours, and it is then poured into a boiler on the fire, having 
thirty-one quarts of boiling water. It is here boiled for half an hour, being 



148 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

stirred with a perforated paddle to prevent lumps and produce perfect incor- 
poration. It is then set aside to cool, and is given blood warm. When first 
used it is mixed with milk in small quantity. The milk is gradually decreased 
till they get the mucilage only. Indian meal may be given in place of bean 
meal, and perhaps pea meal would serve the same purpose as bean meal, the 
latter not being common in this country. I have used buckwheat meal 
cooked into a porridge and added to whey, for calves, with good results, and 
I have no doubt that buckwheat meal could be substituted for bean meal in 
the mixture, and make a good feed. It is desirable and important to feed the 
calf well and hasten the maturity of the young animal so that it will come in 
milk at two years old. Many complain that they are unable to have their 
heifers in milk until three years of age. Heifers coming in milk at two years 
of age invariably make better milkers than those coming in milk a year later, 
to say nothing of the profit of one season's milk. It will be seen, then, that 
a little extra care and feed pays well, in order to an early maturity of the 
animal." 

Mr. Brown of Herkimer Co. prefers March calves in selecting stock to raise. 
The calves are fed new milk for two weeks, at the rate of eight quarts per day 
each. After this, commence adding whey to the milk, and feed in this way 
up to the twentieth of April. By this time, if there is a suflicient quantity of 
whey made daily, no milk is given, but oil meal is made to take the place of 
milk, the quantity for each calf being at the rate of one-half pint of dry meal 
per day. Boiling water is turned upon the meal, which increases its bulk, 
in a few minutes, to three times the quantity of dry meal. It is then mixed 
with the scalding whey, and when sufiicienlly cool given to the calves. 
About three-fourths of a pail of whey to each at a mess, and two feeds per 
day are deemed sufiicient. The calves are turned out to grass as soon as a 
good bite can be had, but the M^hey and oil meal are allowed daily until the 
time for turning into good fresh after feed, when its use is discontinued and 
the calves weaned. In this way good thrifty calves are raised, which winter 
well, and to all appearance are as healthy and in as good growing condition 
as though they had been raised on milk. The calves are always provided 
with a good shelter where they can go at will, out of storms. When oil 
meal cannot be had, oat meal is substituted, at the rate of two-thirds of a 
pint for each per day. The whey should be scalded, as in this condition it is 
better adapted to the anirual, and has a tendency to prevent scouring. 

RAISING CALVES ON THE SOILING PRINCIPLE. 

Mr. G. D. Curtis of Wisconsin, contributes the following to the Boston 
Cultivator : — " About the first of April last, I began raising ten heifer calves 
for the dairy — taught them to drink at three or four days old, and fed them 
the milk of five cows, two hundred weight corn meal, and what hay they 
would eat, till May 15th. Milk and meal were then discontinued, and for the 
next two months they had about ten quarts sweet whey per head a day, and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 149 

what clover and orchard grass they would eat, fed three times a day, of which 
they consumed half an acre. The next sixty-three days they were fed the 
sowed corn that grew on one-half an acre, and the same allowance of whey 
as at first. About the twentieth of September they were turned into wheat- 
stubble ground, seeded to grass last spring. When six months old the 
heaviest one weighed four hundred and thirty pounds," live weight, and the 
lot averaged four hundred pounds per head. The expense of cutting and 
feeding the grass and cornstalks was about the same as harvesting and thresh- 
ing an acre of wheat. 

The milk fed, if made into cheese, $55.00 

Two hundred weight corn meal at 16s, 4.00 

Hay, estimated, 1.00 

One acre land to wheat would have brought, 30.00 

Value of whey, say 10.00 

Eight tons of hay to winter them, 40.00 

Total one year, $140.00 

Equal to about fourteen dollars per head for yearlings, — about double the 
cost of ' peace prices.' 

" I have been engaged in dairying and stock-raising for the past twenty 
years, and have tried nearly all the different ways of feeding calves, and 
consider the experiment of the past season much the best. It produces very 
superior animals, and is no more expensive than the other plans." 

CALF SKINS. 

When calves are to be slaughtered for veal, or killed at a very early age, 
as is common in some dairy sections (in the latter case the hide and rennet 
only being saved), some attention should be given to stripping off the hide 
properly, and preparing it for market. 

Calves that are to be "deaconed" should be allowed to live at least four 
or five days, and when killed the throat should not be cut crossways, for it 
can be bled just as well without. The skin should then be removed by slitting 
the hide from the middle of the under jaw to the root of the tail, and down the 
inside of the forelegs from between the dew-claws to the slit already made, 
and down the outside of the hind legs over the gambrel joint, and then direct 
to a point in the slit first named, midway between the teats and the roots of 
the tail. It is the safest way to draw the skin off with a windlass or a horse, 
but when this is inconvenient great care should be taken not to cut or hack 
the skin, as a cut part way through the skin is quite as bad as a hole. Instead 
of a knife for removing the skin, a bone or hard wood instrument shaped like a 
knife should be used, as it can be done almost if not quite as rapidly and with 
no danger to the skins. If the skin be a veal it should now be weighed and 
the weight marked down, as veal skins are purchased by the pound. But 
whether a " deacon " or a " veal " it should be stretched out on the floor or 
some level place, and about two pounds of salt applied, taking care that 



150 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

every spot is touched. The better way is, after sprinkling the skin as evenly 
as possible, to take an old brush or the hand and rub the salt thoroughly in. 
After lying for a day or two, if in the way, it should be hung up and allowed 
to dry under cover, but not exposed to the sun. If the skins are on hand 
after the first of June, they should be fx'equently whipped, to prevent the 
working of moths. The taking off and care of skins should not be left to 
young and careless boys, but should receive the personal attention of the 
farmer, or some trusty person. For skins taken off in the above manner and 
free from cuts, the tanner can afford to pay a price considerably above the 
market for ordinary skins as they run. Damaged, " slunk and dead skins," 
have a value, but should be sold as such for what they are worth. 

HOVEN IN CATTLE. 

Among the many diseases of dairy stock, hoven^ or hove, as it is usually 
termed, is of frequent occurrence. It is induced by a sudden change of diet, 
as when animals in spring are turned from hay upon luxuriant pasturage, or 
later in the season, by changing from the pasture to a full growth of after- 
feed in meadows. Cows, when thus turned into fresh herbage, devour it 
greedily, which produces over-distension of the rumen, followed quickly by 
hove. A similar derangement of the digestive functions sometimes happens, 
it is said, from feeding turnips, though the more frequent occurrence of this 
disease coming under our observation, has been from a change of diet, and 
where the animals have been allowed to gorge themselves upon luxuriant 
grass. The food in such cases is imperfectly matured, the stomach becomes 
loaded, the process of rumination is prevented, decomposition takes place, 
gas is generated, and the animal becomes swollen with confined air that dis- 
tends the paunch and intestines. 

Great care should be exercised in the management of stock at the partic- 
ular seasons referred to, since with proper precautions, the malady may often 
be avoided. It is always best that the change of food should be brought about 
by degrees, allowing the cows at first to take only a part of a meal, and con- 
tinuing in this course for a few days until they have become somewhat 
accustomed to the fresh grass. In spring, after having been restricted during 
our long winters to dry food, a sudden change to a full supply of succulent 
food will be apt to derange health, even if the animals by chance escape an 
attack of hove. It will be well, too, on first turning to grass, that it be done 
at such times as when the weather is dry and the herbage is not covered with 
dew ; and this rule should be particularly observed on first turning stock into 
luxuriant aftermath. 

There is scarcely a dairyman of any considerable experience but has had 
cases of hove more or less severe among his cows — and the loss of valuable 
animals on account of the malady is of frequent occurrence. Indeed hove is 
so sudden in its attack and the disease progresses so rapidly, that unless 
speedy relief is given the animal dies. The fermentation which the food 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



151 



undergoes is facilitated by the heat and moisture to which it is exposed while 
in the rumen. The gaseous compounds produced by the fermenting process 
vary according to its duration ; at first carbonic acid gas is evolved, but in 
a short time this product gives place to carbureted hydrogen gas. 

Various medicines have from time to time been recommended, but scarcely 
any, with the exception of chloride of lime, is of much avail. When the 
attack is not severe the animal often recovers without any assistance. 
Chloride of lime is frequently found effectual in bad cases, administered in 
a small quantity of water, the dose of chlorinated lime being from three to 
four drachms. Used in time it effectually neutralizes the carbureted hydrogen 
gas. In its action the chlorine quits the lime and unites with the hydrogen 
and forms a substance — muriatic acid — with which the new uncombined lime 
unites, and the result is a harmless substance — muriate of lime. 

In severe cases there should be no delay in adopting the necessary treat- 
ment, or the animal may be lost, for 
death in this disease is caused by 
suffocation. Immediate relief is given 
by puncturing the rumen, a quite 
simple operation when it is under- 
stood, and one which should always 
be resorted to in bad cases. As the 
disease is of such a character that no 
time is to be lost (for if the animal is 
Fio. 1. to be saved, prompt action is re- 

quired), every farmer should understand the nature of the operation and be 
able to perform it. By observing the following diagrams but little difficulty 
need be had in operating successfully. 

It is important to bear in mind that the operation should always be per- 
formed on the left side of the animal, in consequence of the inclination of the 
rumen to that part of the abdominal cavity. Figure 1 is a sketch intended 
to represent the first stomach in its natural situation ; a, the anterior pouch ; 
J, the anterior-posterior, the one which is opened in these cases / c, the mid- 
dle, and (?, the posterior-inferior. 

The place of puncture is in the flank about three inches below the spinal 
column, and mid-way between the last rib and the hip. 

The instrument recommended by veterinary sugeons is called a trocar ; 
it consists of a stilet, having a lancet-shaped 
point and a sheath. We give Professor 
SiMONDs' directions, as follows : 

" The stilet should be about six inches in length, and when placed within 
the sheath it should protrude about three-fourths of an inch ; its diameter 
may vary from three-eighths of an inch to half an inch. In performing the 
operation it is best to first puncture the skin with a lancet ; which having 
been done, insert the point of the instrument in the wound and thrust the 




152 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 




stilet covered by the metal sheath inwards and slightly downwards, using 
sufficient force to penetrate the coats of the rumen ; afterwards withdraw the 
stilet leaving the sheath in the situation. The sheath is to remain until the gas 
has escaped, when it is to be removed and the edges of the wound in the 
skin brought together by a stitch of strong silk." 

As farmers are not usually provided with the proper instruments for per- 
forming the operation, a dirk-bladed 
knife may be used, and a quill or any 
small tube introduced into the punc- 
ture for the escape of the offending 
gas. There is no danger attending 
the operation when the proper instru- 
ment is used. 

Figure 2 represents the point where 
puncture should be made — at the 
point where the lines a, h and c, d 
intersect each other. 

Fig. 2. 
HUTCHINS' rUMIGATOR FOR DESTROYING LICE ON CATTLE. 

The fumigator consists of an iron cylinder with a circular bellows attached 
to one end, and the opposite end is 
contracted into a nozzle, so as to be 
easily inserted into the wool when 
using it for sheep ticks. It also has 
sieves at each end of the cylinder to 
prevent the fire passing into the bel- 
lows or out through the nozzle ; by 
this means the smoke is never hot enough to do the least injury to animal 
or plant. 

The cylinder being filled with cut tobacco and pressed down a little, same 
as you would fill a tobacco pipe, is ignited on top, and the smoke is forced 
out through the nozzle by the action of the bellows. 

For ticks on sheep, introduce the nozzle into the wool, and give one or two 
good pufis ; then move it from two to four inches, and puif again, and so on 
till you fill the fleece with smoke. It will take from two to four hours to 
smoke one hundred sheep, and one pound of tobacco will be sufficient for that 
number. 

To kill lice on cattle, colts, &c., fill the hair with the smoke, then blanket 
them. In all cases go over them again after the nits hatch. It is better to 
take sheep into the open air to smoke them to prevent it making the operator 
sick. 

For lice on plants and bushes of all kinds, also for the currant worm, 
squash bug, &c., cover the bushes or plants with some old clothes box, or 
anything to hold the smoke, then give them a good smoking ; it will not 
injure the plant, but will kill the vermin. 




MILK. 



Of all the vai'ious foods used for the support of human life milk is one of 
the most perfect. It is almost the only food that will, when used alone, 
support life, and maintain health and vigor for an indefinite length of time. 
The earliest records of our race tell us of flocks and herds, and it may be 
assumed that not only the milk of animals but that the products of milk, in 
some form, have been employed in the diet of man from the most remote 
times. But while milk has been the natural food of the young of ali mam- 
malia, and while it Las been, for ages, both in its natural and manufactured 
state, a blessing to the poor and a luxury to the rich, little was known com- 
paratively of its composition, and of its behavior under certain peculiar 
conditions, until within the last half century. 

Milk is described by the chemists as a secretion produced from the 
elements of blood and chyle, by the mammary gland of the female animal of 
the order, majwinalia^ after giving birth to young. It is a whitish, opaque 
liquid, of an agreeable, sweetish taste, and a faint but peculiar odor. It is 
slightly denser than water. Cows' milk of good quality has a specific gravity 
of about 1,030; woman's milk, 1,020 ; goat's and ewe's milk, 1,035 to 1,042; 
and asses' milk 1,019; that of water being 1,000. Whatever food has the 
efiect of inducing the secretion of a very large amount of water, must 
necessarily give milk poor in quality. Such is the efiect when food is supplied 
of distillers' grains, grass from irrigated meadows, acid slops, obtained by 
allowing barley meal, cabbage leaves, and other vegetable matter mixed with 
a great deal of water, to pass through the lactic acid fermentation. There 
cannot be much question but that whey may be added to this class of food, 
though there seems to be great difference of opinion among those who feed 
whey to milch cows, as to its materially affecting the proportion of solid 
constituents of the milk. We need a series of carefully conducted experi- 
ments to satisfactorily determine this matter and put the question at rest. 
Dr. VoELCKER is led to conclude from his experiments that milk is rich when 
it contains twelve per cent, of solid matter and about three per cent of pure 
fat. Anything above this is of extra rich quality. 



154 



Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 



SPECIFIC GEAVITT A TEST OE QUALITY. 

The specific gravity of milk is an important test of its quality. From 
experiments made in the Doctor's laboratory, for the pm-pose of ascertaioing 
the influence of dilution upon the specific gravity of milk, and the quantity 
of cream thrown uj), some useful hints are obtained. Water being the 
standard at 1.000, cream 1.012 to 1.019, and good milk 1.0320, the tempera- 
ture always being 62° Farenheit, the following results were obtained: 



Specipic Gkavitt 



Per Cent. Cbeah 
IN Bulk. 



Pure Milk at 62° Fahrenheit 

" " and 10 per cent, of water, 

" " 20 
" " " 30 

" " 40 
" " " 50 " " 



1.0320 
1.0315 
1.0305 
1.0290 
1.0190 
1.0160 



UK 
10 



Experiments with the hydrometer and direct weighing give the following ; 



Specific Gravity at 62 o before 
Skimming. 



Specific Gravitt 

at 62 o f. after 

Skimming. 



By Htdkometer. 



By Direct 
Weighing. 



By Direct 
Weighing. 



Pure Milli,. 



-|- 10 per cent, of water,. 

-1-20 " " . . 

-1-30 

--40 

--50 



1.0320 
1.0285 
1.0250 
1.0235 
1.0200 
1.0170 



1.03141 

1.0295 

1.0257 

1.0233 

1.0190 

1.0163 



1.0337 
1.0308 
1.0265 
1.0248 
1.0208 
1.0175 



Another experiment made upon skimmed milk with hydrometer gave the 

nwincr ' 



following 



Specific Gratitt. 



Skim Milk,. 



with 10 per cent, of water,. 
20 
30 
40 
50 



1.0350 
1.0320 
1.0265 
1.0248 
1.0210 
1.0180 



From these investigations the following conclusions are drawn : 

1. That good new milk has a specific gravity of about 1.030. 

2. That skim milk is a little more dense, being about 1.034. 

3. That milk which has a specific gravity of 1.025 or less, is either mixed 
with water or is naturally very poor. 

4. That when milk is deprived of about ten per cent, of cream and the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 155 

original volume is made up by ten per cent, of water, the specific gravity of 
such skimmed and watered milk is about the same as that of good new milk ; 
this circumstance however, does not constitute any serious objection to the 
hydrometer or lactometer, as milk skimmed to that extent cannot be mixed 
with water without becoming so blue and transparent that no instrument 
would be required to detect the adulteration. 

5. That when unskimmed milk is mixed with only twenty per cent, of 
water, the admixture is indicated at once by the specific gravity of about 
1.025. 

Mr. Flint gives the result of a test of difierent specimens of milk, the 
hydrometer and lactometer being used on the morning's milk, at a tempera- 
ture of of sixty degrees. The scale was graduated for pure milk at one hun- 
dred degrees. 

The first pint drawn from a native cow stood at 101 Degrees. 

Strippings of same cow, 86 " 

Milk of pure bred Jersey, 95 " 

" " " Ayrshire, 100 

" " " Hereford, 106 

" " " Devon, Ill " 

While their cream stood, 66 " 

All these specimens of milk were pure, and milked at the same time in 
the morning, carefully labeled, put in separate vessels, and set upon the same 
shelf to cool off; and yet the variations of specific gravity amounted to 
twenty-five degrees ; or, taking the average quality of the native cow's milk 
at ninety-three and one-half degrees, the variations amounted to seventeen 
and one-half degrees. ■ But knowing the specific gravity at the outset, of any 
specimen of milk, the hydrometer would show the amount of water added. 
This cheap and simple instrument is therefore of frequent service. At the 
cheese and butter factories the lactometer and cream gauges are the only 
instruments employed to determine whether milk is delivered pure or has 
been watered. It is found that notwithstanding the milk of different cows 
in the same herd will vary considerably in specific gravity, still when it is all 
massed together, the specific gravity of such milk, if compared with the milk 
of different herds of a neighborhood, will be very nearly the same. It is 
from this fact that the attempt has been made in New York to establish the 
lactometer test as competent evidence in the courts, and some of the lower 
courts have so ruled. 

LACTOMETER IN COURT. 

An interesting and important case was tried in 1868 at the Circuit Court 
held at Herkimer, Judge Foster presiding, as to whether the hydrometer or 
lactometer, as it is commonly called, be or be not a reliable milk test, and 
alone competent to convict where the instrument indicates watered milk. The 
suit was brought by the Treasurer of the Frankfort cheese factory against 
one of its patrons, to recover a penalty for alleged violations of the law to 



156 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



prevent adulteration or watering of milk. The plaintiff claimed that the 
defendant at certain times during the year 1865 brought to the factory milk 
which, when tested there by the hydrometer and cream gauges, indicated from 
twelve to seventeen per cent, less specific gravity than pure milk, and hence 
that it had been diluted with water. No other proof was in evidence except 
the tests of the instruments at the factory as above named. The defendant 
denied the allegation, and he and his three sons testified that the milking and " 



Lactometer. 




o 



Theemometbk— Nickel Plated, 



Floating Theemometeb. 

carrying the milk to the factory had been done by them, and that no water, 
to their knowledge, had ever been added to the milk. 

The witnesses on the part of the plaintiff were the manager of the factory 
and some of its patrons, together with several managers of factories from 
different parts of the country and Canada, of large experience and of high 
reputation. The plaintiff proved the testing of defendant's milk at the fac- 
tory by the hydrometer and cream gauges — that it was deficient in cream 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 157 

and indicated by the hydrometer from twelve to fifteen per cent, of water. 
Several managers of factories stated that where the tests were applied to the 
milk known to be pure, from different dairies, the variations were generally 
no more than from two to three per cent, from the standard of pure milk. 
Several of them testified also, that they regarded the lactometer to be per- 
fectly reliable as a milk test, and that this conclusion had been arrived at from 
hundreds and even thousands of tests of milk from dairies as it came to the 
factory. The plaintiff's counsel attempted to show from reported analyses 
of milk, and from other sources, that the variable constituents of milk, for 
the most part, were the cream and the water, both of which were lighter 
than pure milk, that consequently, where there was a deficiency of cream and 
the specific gravity was less than pure milk, as had been shown in the milk 
furnished by the defendant, it could be accounted for in no other way than 
from adulteration or watering the milk. 

The defense took the ground that the hydrometer was a mere float, well 
adapted to determine the specific gravity of fluids and of milk, but that 
the latter being made up of several constituents, all of which were liable 
to vary from time to time, the specific gravity of the compound at the 
factory gave no positive evidence of its quality as it came from the cow, unless 
such quality had been clearly ascertained as a standard from which to make 
comparisons. It was proved by several witnesses that in testing milk known 
to be pure, from different cows, with the hydrometer, there was considerable 
variation, sometimes as much as ten per cent.; and this variation had occured 
where the cows were of the same breed, fed on the same kind of food, and 
general treatment alike. It was proved from the books and from witnesses 
that the quality of milk is affected by various circumstances, such as difference 
of breed of the cows, quantity and quality of food, distance from time of 
calving, withholding salt for a time, and then salting, health of stock, general 
treatment, &c. From Voelcker's analysis of four samples of new milk, it 
was shown that the water varied from 83.90 in one himdred parts, the butter 
from 7.62 to 1.99, the caseine from 3.66 to 2.94, the milk sugar from 4.46 to 
6.12, and the mineral matter from .64 to 1.13, making percentage of dry 
matters vary from 16.10 to 10.05. 

Another analysis of several specimens of milk was referred to in the 
Keport of the Department of Agriculture, where the difference in constituents 
was considerable, one specimen showing 93.0 of water, 1.8 of butter, 3.4 of 
casein, .8 milk sugar, and .1 of salts— thus making a variation of water 
between that and the specimen analyzed by Voelcker of over nine per cent. 
The milk sugar varied nearly five per cent., and the ash over one per cent. 
It was proved also that in making tests of milk with the hydrometer, great 
care was necessary in having the temperature exact, and in having the milk 
thoroughly mingled or stirred together, since the upper portion of the milk 
was of less specific gravity than that at the bottom. 

One of the witnesses testified to the following experiments made with 



158 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

the milk of different cows in his own dairy. I was present at the tests, 
and 'helped to conduct the experiments : 

First. A heifer's milk at 80°, when tried with the hydrometer marked the 
instrument i° below zero, showing five per cent, variation from pure milk. 

Second. Milk of cow eight years old at 80°, hydrometer stood i° below 
zero, a variation of two and a-half per cent, from pure milk. 

Third. Milk of all the cows mingled together in the vat at 80° ; hydro- 
meter f° above zero, showing a variation of 3.75 per cent. 

Fourth. Thin cream at 80°, taken from night's milk in the vat; hydro- 
meter sunk below 10°, or the point graduated as pure water. 

Fifth. Milk at 60°, taken from near the bottom of the vat, and where the 
whole depth of milk in the vat was only four inches ; hydrometer stood 1 ° 
below zero, showing ten per cent, variation from pure milk line. 

Sixth. A portion of the above milk in the vat, taken from the top at 60° ; 
hydrometer stood f ° below zero, or 3.75 per cent, variation. 

Seventh. The above milk thoroughly stirred and mingled together in the 
vat, and at 60° ; hydrometer |° below zero, or 7^ per cent, variation. 

Eighth. The same milk above, stirred together and raised to 80° ; hydro- 
meter ^° above zero, or one and a quarter per cent, lighter than pure milk. 

Ninth. Milk from twelve years old cow at 80°; hydrometer |° above 
zero, showing five per cent, water. 

Tenth. Milk from eight years old cow at 80° ; hydrometer stood at zero, 
or pure milk mark. 

Eleventh. Milk from a two years old heifer at 80° temperature; hydro- 
meter |-° above zero, or five per cent, variation. 

Twelfth. Milk from a two years old heifer, 80° temperature ; hydrometer 
i° above zero, or two and a-half per cent, variation. 

Greatest variation in milk of different cows as above tested at 80° tem- 
perature, one degree or ten per cent. 

For every 2.28° of temperature the hydrometer marked one per cent, 
variation. 

I have thus given some of the leading points as brought out in this 
case in regard to the hydrometer or lactometer. The arguments of counsel 
on both sides were able, as was also the Judge's charge to the jury, which, 
after a mature deliberation, brought in a verdict for the defendant, thus 
settling the question that the hydrometer alone, in cases of this kind, is not 
sufficient to convict. 

^ The Court House was densely crowded and great interest manifested by 
dairymen and others during the whole time this case was being tried, which 
lasted two days. Counsel for plaintiff, Hon. R. Earl and Brother, of Herki- 
mer; for defendant, Hon. Roscoe Conkling and Hon. F. Keenan. I 
may remark here, in closing, that the result of this suit does not lessen the 
value of the hydrometer and cream gauges in the hands of intelligent persons. 
They act as sentinels, warning the operator of any unusual condition of the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



159 



milk, and when such occurs he should not hastily jumi? at conclusions, but look 
carefully at all the causes likely to have influence in the case, and then make up 
his judgment upon them. 

TEST OF "WATERED MILK. 

In making a test for watered milk, two equal glass jars or cream gauges 
are taken, and a small jar which is graduated and used for a one per cent, 
glass. ISTow one of the cream gauges is filled to gauge mark, ten, with milk 
which is known to be pure and drawn from several cows. This will be the 
standard for pure milk for that day. Fill the other glass, to the same number, 



.10 



-20 



t 30 



.10 



-20 



.30 



Ceeam Gauge. Per Cent. Glass. Cbeasi Gauge. 

with milk from the can you wish to test. To avoid any mistake, mark the 
first jar pure milk, by putting the letters P. M. on the side or bottom. Set 
the jars away, side by side, a sufficient length of time for the cream to rise. 
Now note the quantity of cream on each. If a less quantity is found on the 
milk you are testing than on the other, it indicates dilution or skimmed milk. 
Now remove the cream from each with a spoon; introduce the hydrometer 
or lactometer into the jar marked P. M. and note on the scale mark where it 



160 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

floats. Now place the hydrometer into the other. If it sinks lower than in 
the first, it is very strong evidence of dilution with water. Replace the' 
lactometer in jar marked P. M. and from per cent, glass filled with water 
exactly to or zero, pour into P. M. jar until the lactometer sinks exactly to 
the same point as in the other jar. Now count or number on per cent, glass 
from zero down (each mark represents half of one per cent.), and you will 
have precisely the percentage of water with which the milk you are testing 
has been diluted. Care must be taken to have the temperature of the samples 
the same. 

EECENT MILK TESTS, 

The subjoined results of milk examinations made during the present year, 
1871, by Mr. J. A. Waukltn, member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of 
Sciences, and published in the London Milk Journal, will be of interest in 
this connection : — " In making examinations of milk for sanitary or commer- 
cial purposes, it is customary to use determinations of specific gravity as 
indices of the strength of milk. It is, howevei-, recognized that owing to 
the circumstance of cream being lighter than water, while skimmed milk is 
heavier, the indication of strength afforded by a determination of specific 
gravity is not very precise. Obviously, if in addition to the specific gravity, 
the percentage of cream were taken, a connection could be applied so as to 
rectify the indication of strength derived from specific gravity. In the course 
of an examination of milk, undertaken for this Journal, the observation was 
made that there is another source of inaccuracy hitherto quite unsuspected. 
Skimmed milk consists mainly of water, caseine, milk-sugar, and a small 
quantity of mineral salts. Now, the exact molecular condition of the caseine 
influences the specific gravity of milk. In other words, samjiles of milk of 
the same strength will vary in specific gravity according to the exact mole- 
cular condition of the caseine. Especially are these changes in condition 
brought out if milk be kept for a while. This is illustrated by the following 
examples. 

" In attempting to analyse articles of general consumption, with a view to 
determine the extent of adulteration, it is necessary to operate on a large 
number of samples obtained from bona fide purchasers, and to adopt means 
calculated to ensure comparable results. We do not intend on this occasion 
to enter fully into the subject of milk analysis, but we may state that plans 
commonly adopted are of little worth. We have had to notice the untrust- 
worthiness of specific gravity determinations of milk — that is to say, the 
danger of judging of the strength of milk by its specific gravity. To be of any 
value at all, the specific gravity determination must be made while the sample 
of milk is very fresh. After milk has been kept for two or three' days, even 
in a closed vessel, its specific gravity falls in a very remarkable manner. The 
following examples exhibit this in an extreme form. The specimens of milk 
had been kept in corked bottles for four days : 



Pb. ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 



161 




Sample «, 



Showing that the highest specific gravity sometimes accomisanies the lowest 
percentage of solids. The reason of this want of correspondence between 
specific gravity and solid contents we have already explained. Meanwhile, 
in judging of the strength of milk, we propose to adhere to the method of 
evaporating to dryness in the water-bath, and weighing the residue. 

" We have examined seven samples of milk sent to us by diflferent persons, 
with a request that they should be examined. We have found in one hundred 
parts by weight of each, as follows : 



No. 1, 
2, 
3, 
4, 
5, 
6, 
7, 




" The sample No. 6 is a gross case of dilution. It is milk supplied to a 
workman's family in Bethnal-green, and contains no less than four parts of 
water to six of milk. Samples Nos. 5 and 7 are not so bad, but unless dilu- 
tion had been practiced, the milks were exceedingly and abnormally poor. 

" We recently obtained a specimen of country milk from the Dairy Reform 
Company. We procured it in the perfect confidence that, if pure unadulterated 
milk can be obtained from any source, it can be obtained from this admirably- 
managed association. The specific gravity was 1024.8, taken with great care 
with an accurate balance, at a temperature of 60® Fahr. As a crucial test 
we sent a special messenger to the Victoria Dairy, in Union Street, Hackney, 
to obtain four samples of milk from one cow. We wished to test the milk as 
drawn straight into the sample bottles from each quarter of the udder. The 
results were : 

Sp. gr., at 
60° Falir. 

Right side, front quarter 1020.4 

Leftside, " " 1021.3 

Right side, hind quarter ^. ., 1023.0 

Leftside, " " 1023.5 

"The cows in this dairy are well cared for, and fed on meal, clover, and 
other foods calculated to give a good qualitv of milk ; but we thought the 
11 



162 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

drawing of the first portions of milk from each quarter would scarcely give 
fair samples, since the strippings are always richer. We have also obtained, 
as the result of the strippings from all the quarters, milk with a specific 
gravity of 1025.1. When, therefore, a great deal is made of very high 
specific gravities, we can only say, from a milk consumer's point of view, that 
the results must be accepted with due caution. 

" We rely more for practical purposes on careful weighings of the solids 
obtained directly from milk at the boiling point of water, and of the ash, 
after carefully burning the same solids. The results are most satisfactory ; 
and we have examined samples from several dairymen in Kensington, which 
prove that the milk dealers are far from being the very black sheep they are 
so commonly represented to be. Last month we had to record very poor 
results, and we should have exposed one or two of the most shameful cases 
of dilution had we the ojjportunity of repeated examinations. This month 
we have been more fortunate in every respect, as the subjoined list indicates : 



Total Solids 
Najsie and Address. dried at SIS'' 

Fahr. 



Ash. 



Tunks and Tisdall, Newland Terrace, Kensington. . . , 

Clarke, Kensington Place, High Street 

Watson, Russell Gardens, Addison Road, Kensington. 

Lunn, Cliurcli-street, Kensington 

Kniglit, High-street, Kensington 



13.12 
13.16 
12.51 
12.47 
11.25 



0.61 
0.65 
0.66 
0.76 
0.74 



"These are fair samples. The first four are virtually alike, and undoubt- 
edly rich. The last sample of milk is poor. 

" A sample of milk direct from the cow, obtained from the Victoria Dairy, 
gave: 

Total solids. Ash. 

13.60 0.75 

" This is very rich, and ' strippings ' above referred to, with sp. gr. of 
1025.1, yielded 

Solids. Ash. 
18.74 0.63 

" No comment is needed when these results are compared with many 
published analyses. 

SPONTAlsrEGUS CHANGES IN MILK. 

" The remarkable diminution which the specific gravity of milk undergoes 
on keeping, noticed in last month's Journal, induced us to study the changes 
occurring in milk from the moment it is drawn. As it comes from the cow it 
is at the temperature of the body, viz., about 100® Fahr., and in the most 
perfect state of emulsion. There are some material difierences in the chemi- 
cal composition and physical characters of different portions drawn in succes- 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 163 

sive quantities into separate vessels in the "one act of milking. Thus a sample 
—the first eight ounces of milk drawn direct into a bottle gave : 

lu 100 parts 17.33 solids. 0.70 ash. 

The specific gravity taken the same day at 60* was 1020.4. The specific 
gravity taken two days later at 60° Fahr. was 1030.2. 

"An average sample of the same cow's milk taken the next day, with due 
care that the Avhole secreted by the one quarter of the udder was drawn ofi" 
and well mixed, yielded : 

In 100 parts 13.60 solids 0.75 ash. 

The specific gravity at 60° Fahr., was 1031.3. 

" Lastly, the ' strippings,' after drawing the sample which gave the last 
result, and having well milked the cow, showed : 

In 100 parts 18.74 solids 0.62 ash. 

The specific gravity at 60° Fahr. was 1024.6. 

" From the whole course of our experiments, it appears that the first 
change which milk experiences is a contraction. Specific gravity 1020 becomes 
specific gravity 1030. The next change is expansion— and this occupies some 
days— which is manifested by the specific gravity sometimes falling below 
1000. We reserve further details for a future number. We have said enough 
to caution people against trusting to the lactometer in determining the 
nutritive value of milk." 

ABSORPTIVE PROPERTIES OF MILK. 

The following note on the remarkable properties of milk in absorbing 
and retaining exhalations such as those of tar, carbolic acid, and other ill- 
smelling substances, is from the pen of Mr. Lawson Tait, F.R.C.S., of Bir- 
mingham. He writes : " In the month of April last I was engaged with my 
friend Mr. M. E. Naylor, veterinary surgeon, in examining the conditions 
attending the spread of the foot and mouth disease in the West Riding; and, 
amongst other stations of sufiering, we visited the farm attached to the West 
Riding Lunatic Asylum, under the superintendence of my distinguished 
friend Dr. Crichton- Browne. I had a long conversation with the intelli- 
gent farm bailifi; Mr. Turner ; and, amongst other experiences I tasted the 
diseased milk. I found that this had a peculiarly disagreeable, smoky taste, 
and at first I rashly set this down as due to the disease of the cows. I found, 
however, that this smoky taint was by no means confined to the milk yielded 
by the afiected animals ; and Dr. Browne told me that he had sometimes 
occasion to send away milk and cream from his table, which was unfit to use 
an account of this smoky taste. A little examination further showed us that 
this flavoring was due to the recent asphalting which had been done in and 
near the milk-house. It at once flashed across my mind that, if milk acquired 
this tarry flavor from absorption of the exhalations of asphaltum, it was just 



164 Fk-ACtical Dairy Husbandry. 

possible it might also acquire other things which were not so innocuous ; and 
I at once set going a series of experiments which have led me to the belief 
that milk is an extremely dangerous agent for the spread of contagion. I 
need not say that I did not try any experiments, as they were all personal, 
with contagious matter ; but by inclosing fresh milk under bell-jars with tar, 
turpentine, assafoetida, faeces, urine, &c., I found that in most instances the 
milk became impregnated with the smell, and sometimes with that intensely 
disagreeable sensation which we know as the ' taste like the smell ' of the 
substances employed. The degree to which this was acquired seemed not so 
much to be in proportion to the amount employed either of milk or of infec- 
tant substance, but to the amount and quality of the cream which rose to the 
surface of the milk ; the oleaginous molecules seeming to act as the menstruum 
of contagion. This is not unlikely, when we remember that the best solvent 
for nearly all odoriferous principles is oil. Clinically, this question will be 
m.ost diificult and dangerous to work out. For one, I shall not attempt it. 
But, if we bethink ourselves of any instances of diseases which might in 
certain instances be communicated by milk, typhoid fever stands out with 
fearful probability." These observations are of obvious importance to the 
farmer, not only as indicating the infections of which he must beware, but 
the high-smelling sulphurous, chlorinated, carbolic, or tarry disinfectants — 
such as sulphurous acid, chlorine, chloride of zinc (Burnett's fluid), carbolic 
acid, and McDougall's powders, against which he must be equally on his 
guard, however much they may be pressed on his attention by interested or 
imperfectly-informed persons. 

COLOE OF MILK. 

Milk of average good quality contains about eighty-seven per cent, of 
water. It is for the most part an emulsion of fatty particles, in a solution 
of caseine and milk sugar. Thus the proportion may be stated to be very 
nearly, in one hundred parts, as follows : 

Water, 87.40 

Butter, 3.43 

Caseine, 3.13 

Milk Sugar, 5.13 

Mineral matter, 93 

100 

Milk varies in its composition in different cows, at different seasons, or 
when fed upon different kinds of food, — the greatest variation in either of 
its solid constituents being in the butter. The fatty particles are inclosed in 
little cells of caseine. In other words the butter is encased in curds. These 
milk globules are generally round or egg-shaped. They are of different sizes 
in different animals ; and even in animals of the same kind they vary from 
the l-2000th to the l-4000thpart of an inch. Viewed under the microscope 
milk appears as a transparent fluid, in which float these innumerable small 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 165 

round or egg-shaped globules — the so-called milk globules. The fluid consti- 
tutes the bulk, and the milk globules but a small fraction of the milk. The 
white apj)earance of the milk is due to the milk globules suspended in it. As 
these globules are separated in the shape of cream, the milk becomes clearer 
and acquires a peculiar bluish tint which at once indicates its character, "As 
blue as skimmed milk" is an old adage — a familiar expression, if not a 
familiar fact to most jDcople, whether they be dairymen or otherwise. Com- 
pletely sef)arated from the milk globules, the fluid is a perfect solution of 
curd or caseine, albumen, milk sugar, and mineral matters. 

These butter bags or cells, being lighter than milk, rise on standing, and 
are removed as cream. The less transparent the milk is, the better, and the 
more butter it contains. If it were possible to separate the cream completely 
by standing, the skimmed milk would be almost colorless ; but as a certain 
number of milk globules always remain suspended in milk, even after long 
standing, skimmed milk is always more or less opaque. In the ordinary 
process of setting milk and skimming, the fatty matter is not wholly removed , 
with the cream which rises ; for if the skimmed milk be made into cheese, 
the cheese on analysis will be found to contain butter, though the quantity 
may be small. But that the butter is not all removed from the skimmed 
milk, will perhaps be as satisfactorily indicated to the dairyman, by observing 
the thin coating of cream which rises upon the whey obtained from the man- 
ufacture of " skim cheese." Skimmed milk and buttermilk, having a whitish 
appeai'ance, still contain minute milk globules, with shells of caseine, or 
caseine in solution, which color the fluid. 

TINT PROM THE FOOD COWS PEED 027. 

It may be observed that the food Avhich cows ffeed upon sometimes 
imparts its peculiar tint. It is a well known fact that food containing 
substances of a medicinal character which pass rapidly into the milk, imparts 
to it medicinal properties, similar to those in the substances themselves. 
Thus, if castor oil be given to a milch cow in considerable quantities, the 
purgative effects of the oil pass into the milk. The i^eculiar flavor of turnips, 
cabbage, or onions, used as food, passing to the milk, is of so common an 
occurrence to those in habit of handling milch stock, that it will be readily 
recognized as a fact. In like manner, the tint of some kinds of weeds 
passes into the milk and colors it. Most authors state that cow's milk is 
either neutral or slightly alkaline, and that the milk of carnivorous animals 
has always an acid reaction. The samples of milk taken from different 
animals of my own herd, when tested with blue litmus paper, have invariably 
shown an acid reaction. When milk is allowed to turn acid by keeping for 
some days, or when any acid or rennet is added to new milk, the curd of 
milk, contaminated with more or less butter, separates in the form of a Avhite, 
flocky, voluminous substance, having a slightly acid reaction. When dried it 
shrinks greatly in bulk and becomes semi-transparent and honi-like. In this 



166 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

condition it is scarcely soluble in water, but dissolves with readiness in a 
weak solution of caustic potash and soda ; and is again precipitated from its 
alkaline solution, by acetic or mineral acids, and restored to its former gelati- 
nous condition. 

CASEINE 

exists in milk in a state of solution, and is distinguished from albumen, which 
it resembles closely in composition and general physical properties, by not 
coagulating on boiling, and by being precipitated by rennet. On boDing a 
solution of caseine it absorbs oxygen, and in consequence a pellicle which is 
insoluble in water is gradually formed upon the surface. A similar pellicle is 
formed when skimmed milk is boiled. New milk gradually heated to near 
the boiling point of water, throws up cream, while at the same time, a skin 
of oxydized caseine is formed on the surface. Thus in the noted " clotted 
cream " of Devonshire we find more curd than in cream collected in the 
ordinary manner. When I was in Devonsire, I was particularly interested 
■ in knowing how this highly esteemed English delicacy was made, and I shall 
describe the process, as I frequently saw it in opei'ation among the Devon- 
shire dairies. 

DEVONSHIRE CKEAM. 

The dairy house is of stone, usually in connection with the dwelling ; 
stone floors and stone benches for the milk to set upon, and all well ventila- 
ted, and scrupously neat and clean. The milk is strained in large, deep pans, 
and put in the dairy house, where it stands eight to ten hours, when the pans 
are taken out and the milk scalded, by placing the pans holding it in an iron 
skillet filled with water and set upon the range. At the bottom of the skillet 
there is a grate on -which the pan of milk rests, so as to keep it from the 
bottom and from burning. The milk is slowly heated to near the boiling 
point, or until the cream begins to show a distinctly marked circle or crinkle 
around the outer edges When the first bubble rises on the surface of the 
cream, it must be immediately removed from the fire. Some experience is 
necessary in applying the heat, to have it just right, otherwise the cream is 
spoiled. When properly scalded, the milk is removed to the dairy, where it 
stands from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the condition of the 
weather, when the cream is removed and is in a thick compact mass, an inch 
or more thick, and quite diflferent from our ordinary cream. It is then divided 
with a knife into squares of convenient size, and removed with a skimmer. 
It is more solid than cream obtained in the usual way, and has a peculiarly 
sweet and pleasant taste. It is considei-ed a great delicacy, and is largely 
used in England, with sugar, upon pastry, puddings, or fresh fruits, and 
especially upon the famous gooseberry pie. It makes an extensive article of 
commerce, and is really a delicious article of food. I do not know as this 
cream has ever been manufactured in this country, but it certainly deserves 
to be introduced, and perhaps would prove profitable. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 167 

solubility of caseine. 
The solubility of caseine iu milk, says Voelcker, is generally ascribed to 
the presence of a certain small proportion of free alkali. But though it is 
quite true that alkalies are excellent solvents for caseine, and milk is fre- 
quenily slightly alkaline, it may be questioned whether the solubility of 
caseine is due to the presence of free alkali ; for even in milk which is 
slightly acid, and therefore does not contain any free alkali, all the curd 
occurs in a soluble form ; nor does the addition to new milk of diluted 
acid iu quantities which, though small, are sufficient to render it decidedly 
sour, cause the separation of caseine. This takes place only after a large 
qantity of lactic acid has been formed spontaneously, or an excess of free 
acid has been put into the milk. And he remarks further, that the action of 
rennet on the soluble form in which caseine occurs in milk is peculiar, and as 
yet unexplained. It was supposed for a long time that 

EENNET COAGULATED MILK 

by converting the sugar of milk into lactic acid, and that the lactic acid, by 
neutralizing the free alkali, was in reality the agent in effecting the separation 
of the curd in a coagulated condition. But this view is no longer tenable ; for 
rennet at once coagulates new milk without turning it acid in the slightest 
degree. He affirms that he has even purposely made milk alkaline, and yet 
separated the curd by rennet, and obtained a whey which had an alkaline 
reaction. In my interviews with Professor Voelcker in London, during the 
summer of 1866, he said to me that the chemists were as yet quite unable to 
explain the coagulating principle of rennet, or even to give it a name. Since 
that time, by the aid of the microscope, the coagulation of milk has been 
explained, and if the theory is correct it opens up a very interesting field of 
investigation. I shall presently refer to these microscopic investigations, and 
give the views now entertained by scientific men on this question. When 
curd is exposed to air in a moist condition, it undergoes partial decomposi- 
tion and becomes a ferment, which rapidly decomposes a portion of the 
neutral fats of butter, separating from them butyric and other volatile fatty 
acids which impart the bad flavor to rancid butter. Caseine ferment also 
rapidly converts milk sugar into lactic acid. Pure caseine of milk has almost 
precisely the same composition as vegetable caseine or legumen, and possesses 
the same physical and chemical qualities. 

albumen. 
When rennet is added to milk it separates into curd and whey, and if 
properly conducted a perfectly clear whey is obtained. On heating the clear 
and filtered whey nearly to the boiling point of water, a flaky curd-like sub- 
stance separates itself. This substance is considered to be albumen. It 
exhibits all the distinguishing properties of white of egg or albumen, but has 
not yet been subjected to ultimate analysis. The albuminous matter which 
is not separated by rennet, but coagulates on boiling the whey from which 



168 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

the curd has been previously removed, amounts in cows' milk to from one-half to 
three-quarters per cent., or about one-quarter to one-fifth part of the caseine. 
It is somewhat remarkable, says Dr. Voelcker, that this albuminous matter 
does not coagulate when new milk is simply raised to the boiling point of water. 
In this case a pellicle of oxydized caseine is formed on the surface, but no 
albumen separates, and it thus appears that the curd of milk has first to be 
removed by rennet before the albuminous matter can be obtained in a coagu- 
lated form. Whether some practical method will yet be invented for arrest- 
ino- this highly nutritious constituent of milk and incorporating it in the 
cheese remains to be seen ; but up to this time none of the ordinary methods 
of cheese-making have sufficed. 

DENSITY OF CREAM. 

I have said that the milk globules are small, roimd, or egg-shaped bodies, 
which inclose in a thin shell of caseine a mixture of several fatty matters. 
They are somewhat lighter than milk and consequently they rise on the sur- 
face when milk is set aside and remains at rest. Cream is slightly denser 
than pure water, and will therefore sink in distilled water. By churning 
the cream, the caseine shells are broken, and the contents of the milk globules 
made into butter. 

MILK SUGAR 

is contained in the clear whey from which curd and albumen have been 
separated, and is prepared by evaporating in shallow vessels until crystals 
begin to separate. The sugar of milk is less sweet than grape or cane sugar. 
It requires five to six parts of cold water for solution ; dissolves readily 
in boiling water, and crystalizes again on cooling, in white, semi-transparent, 
hard, small crystals, which feel gritty between the teeth. In a pure state it 
may be kept, unadulterated, for any length of time, but if left in contact with 
caseine and air it gradually becomes changed into lactic acid or into fruit 
sugar, which in its turn enters into alcoholic fermentation, producing carbonic 
acid and alcohol. Most of the milk sugar of the shops is now manufactured 
in Switzerland. It forms an article of commerce, being used largely in the 
preparation of medicines. It is usually sold at the shops at from six to eight 
shillings per pound, and it has been suggested that it could be profitably 
manufactured here, and employed for various purposes, were its cost cheap- 
ened. A firm in Chicago have recently advertised for the whey of the 
Western cheese factories, and propose to enter upon milk sugar manufacture. 

MINERAL MATTERS. 

The mineral matters of milk consist mainly of phosphate of lime and 
magnesia, and the chlorides of potassium and sodium, besides a small quantity 
of phosphate of iron, and some free soda. A thousand pounds of milk, 
according to the analysis of Haidlen, woxild contain from five to nearly seven 
pounds of mineral matters. The relative proportions of the several sub- 
stances are given by Haidlen as follows : 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



169 



Phosphate of lime 

" of magnesia 

" of peroxide of iron 
Chloride of potassium 

" of sodium 

Free soda 



2.31 


.43 


.07 


. 1.44 


.24 


.42 


4.90 



3.44 
.64 

.07 

1.83 

.34 

.45 

6.77 



I have now given a very full account of the diiferent constituents of milk 
as described by the chemists, and found by chemical analysis ; and it is 
important that those who manufacture milk into dairy products, have some' 
general idea of the component parts of the material with which they have 
to do. * 

QUALITY OF MILK HOW AFFECTED. 

The quality of cow's milk is affected by the age of the animal, as well as by 
the distance from the time of calving. Now, as to the milk of aged cows, the 
general impression in this country among dairymen is, that the milk of old 
cows is quite as good or even better than that of young cows. Hence the almost 
imiversal practice of our dairymen is to retain good milkers on the farm, and if 
no accident occurs, on account of which their milk fails, they are kept in the 
dairy until quite worn out with age and are then turned off— but little better 
than mere skeletons of hides and bones — at from six to ten dollars per head. 
In England I found a very different practice prevailing. When milch cows 
have attained an age of from six to eight years' they are put in condition for 
the shambles and sold, A good profit is thus realized on the animals for 
meat, irrespective of what may have been made in the dairy. They hold that 
the milk of old cows is of inferior quality to that of young cows, and chemical 
' analysis, it seems confirms this opinion. Again, as old cows consume more food 
than young cows, and are therefore more expensive to feed, nothing appears 
so unprofitable as to keep cows until they grow old. Voelckeb affirms that 
generally speaking, after the fourth or fifth calf the milk becomes poorer. 
This is a very important question in the economy of dairy practice, and it is 
one which I hope will be thoroughly investigated at our agricultural colleges. 
Milch cows sell at from seventy to eighty dollars. If turned for beef at seven 
to eight years' old, there will be little or no loss, but if kept four years 
longer and sold for ten dollars, the loss on first cost of the animal is some 
sixty dollars, or fifteen dollars per year. 

influence op food iisr changing the relative constituents of milk. 

There is another interesting question which I hoj^e to see investigated at 
our agricultural colleges, and that is, whether the food upon which the cow 
is kept, has much, or little, or no inufluence in changing the quality of milk, 



170 Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 

or the relative proportions of its various constituents. Dr. Kuhn, a German 
chemist, in a recent communication to a meeting of agricultural chemists at 
Halle, Germany, answers this question in the negative. His opinion is based 
upon an experiment with eleven milch cows, and he believes the result to be 
correct, as the experiment was made with great care. He says : — " Green 
clover was fed with or without the addition of cut straw, so that the propor- 
tion of nitrogenous elements to the non-nitrogenous elements of the food 
varied from 1 to 2.5 to 1 to 3.5 ; nevertheless the relative proportions of the 
several constituents of the dry substance of the milk, as fat, caseine, albu- 
men, and sugar, remained constant throughout. 

The relative proportions of the several dry constituents of the milk 
appear, therefore, he says, to depend, not on quality of the food, but on 
special characteristics in the constitution of the animals themselves. Dr. 
KuHN says he has con&'med this result by experiments with a more varied 
mixture of food, since he has fed hay alone, then hay with starch, with oil, 
with beans, with bran, so that in one instance the proportion of the nitro- 
genous to the non-nitrogenous was as 1 to 8.1. It is not possible, he says, by 
any choice of food to modify the character of the milk so as to make it richer, 
for example, in fat or any other organic ingredient ; this can only be done 
by a judicious selection of the breed of milch cattle. The proportion of 
water however, to the ingredients of the milk may be affected by the char- 
acter of the food ; so that the richness of the milk in any given constituent, 
as for example, oil, may be increased ; but at the same time every other con- 
stituent except water is increased in the same proportion. 

The following paper communicated during the past year (1871), to the 
New York Tribune, by a student of Scientific Agriculture, at one of the 
German Universities, will explain more in detail the theory referred to : 

I"N"FLUENCE OF FODDEE UPON MILK PRODUCTION. 

Some accounts of experiments on the best methods of feeding cattle, made 
at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Moeckern, Saxony, have already 
appeared in an article entitled " Best Food for Milch Cows." An account of 
another experiment, the object of which was to determine the effect of differ- 
ent kinds and quantities of food upon the milk production, will be interesting, 
from its practical as well as scientific bearings. 

The question to be solved is this : WJiat effect does the quality — the com- 
position — of the fodder, have tipon the quality — the composition — of the 
tnilJc? If I have a dairy and make butter, it is worth while to know 
whether, by increasing the amount of fatty matter in the food, I can get a milk 
richer in butter, or whether in case I wish to make cheese, during the hot 
summer months, I can increase the amount of albumen and caseine in the milk, 
by adding albuminous material to the food. Here in Germany, when a ques- 
tion of this kind arises, they have a simple way of settling it. They " try 
and see." And the spirit in which this trying and seeing, this experimenting 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 171 

is done, is the same spirit that has made Napoleon to-day a prisoner upon 
German soil, and borne King William, with his victorious army to the gates 
of Paris ; the spirit of System, of patient, systematic, thorough, intelligent 
work. How Dr. Kuhn and his assistants carried on this experiment, and what 
its plan and results were, we shall be better able to understand after a little 
reviewing of some of the fundamental principles of physiological chemistry. 

The chemistry of the present day informs us that there are two general 
classes of substance which make up the great bulk of the organic matter of 
the plant, and of the animal body, or of its products, as milk. The main 
difference between them, as shown by chemical analysis, is that the one class 
contains nitrogen, while the other does not. Hence they are styled nitro- 
genous and non-nitrogenous substances. But the physiologist finds that they 
have very different uses in the animal system ; that the non-nitrogenous or 
carbo-hydrates, as they are also styled, contribute more to the formation of 
fat, and make also fuel, whose combustion keeps up the animal heat — while 
the nitrogenous build up the muscles, the lean meat, and, at the same time, 
are believed to be especially efiicient as a source of strength, in the same way 
that the carbo-hydrates generate heat by their consumption in the system. 
Let us, then, fix thoroughly in our minds the names and chief offices of these 
two classes of substances : 1. Nitrogenous, or albuminoids — flesh-forming, 
strength-giving. 2. Non-nitrogenous or carbo-hydrates — fat-forming, sources 
of animal heat. Meanwhile we will be content to know that in hay, in meal, 
in meat, in milk, indeed in all that makes up the food and flesh of animals or 
men, these two classes of substances constitute the most important part, and 
that this distinction lies at the foundation of that application of science to 
cattle-feeding, which is called, on this side of the Atlantic, "Rational 
Foddering." 

Fat meat, the fatty portions of milk, and the butter are non-nitrogenous, 
but lean meat and skim-milk cheese are nitrogenous. So the question to be 
decided by our experiment is. Will a ration, rich in carbo-hydrates, give a 
milk rich in butter, or will a milk rich in albuminoide be produced from a 
food of corresponding composition 9 

In the stables of the Moeckern Station, are some stalls especially set apart 
for cows under experiment. During the course of the experiment these cows 
are fed and milked under the direct supervision of one of the chemists, Dr. 
Haase, whose duty it happens to be to attend to the feeding and milking. 
The cows are quietly eating their hay and oil cake, a cow-maid is milking one, 
and the Doctor is looking on to see that no milk is spilled, and is ready to 
take the milk and weigh it as soon as it is ready. The general plan of the 
experiment is to feed the cows during one period of two or three weeks, with 
a ration rich in albuminoids, the ration being made up of hay, which we con- 
sider normal fodder, to which is added bean meal or rape cake, or some other 
substance rich in nitrogen ; and then change the proportions, and for the next 
period furnish a preponderance of carbo-hydrates, or hay, with oil, starch, 



172 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

&c., and note the difference, if any, in the quantity and quality of the milk. 
That would seem to be quite a simple matter, but in fact it is a very compli- 
cated work. To feed a cow three weeks on the highly nitrogenous food, and 
then suddenly change to a highly non-nitrogenous ration would be too great 
a shock upon the internal system to allow the experiment to be reliable. And 
further, natural change, that takes place in the composition and amount of 
the milk, indej^endent of the fodder, makes the work still more comjDlicated. 
To get over these difficulties we must start with a jDcriod of normal fodder- 
ing on good meadow hay, then gradually change, through a transition period, 
to the more or less nitrogenous feed, as the case may be, and continue this 
latter course of feeding for a long while, so as to be sure that it has a fair 
opportunity to work out its full effect ; then, in a second transition period, 
pass gradually to normal fodder ; then on to the second sjDecial ration, which, 
on the supposition that the former was over-rich in nitrogen, will have an 
excess of carbo-hydrates. When this period has run on long enough there 
comes another transition period, during which the carbo-hydrates will be 
removed, until at length we come back to meadow hay again, and this normal 
foddering is kept up through the last j^eriod. The actual rations in the differ- 
rent periods of the experiment were : 

Period I. Normal Fodder — Meadow Hay. Transition, in which a highly 
nutritious material — bean-meal — was added in increasing quantities. 

Period II. Nitrogenous Ration — Meadow hay, with bean-meal or rape- 
cakes. Transition, during which bean-meal was replaced by carbo-hydrates, 
oil, or starch. 

Period III. Non-nitrogenous Ration — Meadow hay, with oil or starch. 
Transition, during which the carbo-hydrates were withdrawn. 

Period IV. Normal Fodder — Meadow hay. 

" The amounts and compositions of the different rations are estimated by 
accurate weighings and analysis. The yield of milk during the normal periods 
at the beginning and end of the experiment gives us a means of estimating 
the line of changes through which the quantity and quality of the milk would 
run, the natural variation in amount and composition during the whole time 
of the experiment — some three months and a-half — and the variations from 
this line during the periods of special foddering, give us the influence of the 
foddering upon the milk, the results aimed at in the experiment. And what 
seems to be the probable result of these experiments ? Thus far, it appears 
that no change in the quality of the food is capable of materially affecting 
the quality of the milk, at least so long as the ration is of such quality as to 
be healthy, and is given in sufficient quantity." 

Meanwhile one of the cowmaids has finished milking, and brings the pail 
to the Doctor. He weighs it carefully on a scale standing close by and notes 
the weight. "You will notice," he says, " that the cows are numbered one, 
two, three, four. For each one there is a separate set of measures for the 
fodder, and a separate milk pail. This is No. 3. The exact weight of pail is 



Practical Datry Husbandry. 



173 



known, and that, subtracted from the whole weight of j^ail and milk togetlier 
gives the weight of the milk. As you see, I have the milk weighed from cow 
three. A portion intended for analysis is poured into a dish marked three, 
the date is also noted, and it is taken into the laboratory with similar portions 
from one and two and analyzed. The composition of the food given is also 
known from analysis, the quantities fed are regularly and carefully weighed 
out, and detailed accounts of the food given and milk obtained are kept, so 
that when the experiment is finished we have all the data from which to draw 
our conclusions." 

Omitting further details we pass at once to the result. First, as to the 
natural changes that the milk undergoes during the milking period, that is to say, 
as the time from calving increases. The average amount of milk given was : 
First period, 18.1 lbs., with normal fodder, meadow hay ; last period, 14.6 lbs., 
with normal fodder, meadow hay. Falling ofi" in three months, 3.5 lbs. Other- 
wise than in this falling oiF about a pound per month in the yield, there was 
no especial change, save a very slight increase in the richness of the milk. 
Indeed, it appears from these and other investigations, that there is generally 
a very slight change in the composition of milk during the milking jDcriod — 
that it becomes somewhat richer, and that there is a slight increase in the 
relative amount of albuminoids, and decrease in that of fat and sugar. How- 
ever, during the first three or four months at least, this change is too trifling 
to be of any practical consequence. Now as to the main result of the exper- 
iment, the influence of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous rations. The 
changes in the composition of the milk during the middle periods were so 
extremely small as to be of no real importance. In fact, the variation 
observed from day to day, and the difierences in the milk from the different 
cows were greater than those found in the milk given in the different periods. 
To show how extremely small these differences were, and at the same time to 
give an illustration of the chemical composition of milk, I append the follow- 
ing figures, the first column showing the average composition, with the 
normal fodder of meadow hay, and the second with the addition of bran meal 
or rape cakes to the hay, the third with hay and oil or starch. In one thou- 
sand parts obtained from these articles were contained : 





NOBMAL 

Ration. 


Nitrogen- 
ous Ration. 


NON-NITBO- 

GENOUS 

Ration. 


Water 


878 
41 
44 
28 

7 


880 
40 
44 
39 

7 


883 


Butter 


39 


Milk Sugar 


43 


Albuminoids 


29 


Mineral Matters 


7 







In short, the differences are so minute as to be of no practical account 
whatever, and it appears that the variations in tlie quality of the ration were 
without effect upon the composition of the milk. Now, let us make sure that 



174 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

we understand this thoroughly. We have been talking of " quality " and 
" composition " of milk and fodder. By this we mean the relative amounts 
of the different ingredients of the milk, water, sugar, fat, albumen, caseine, 
&c. The more organic substance, sugar, fat, and albuminoids in the milk, the 
richer ; the more water, the poorer it is. When we say that the milk grows 
gradually richer with the increase of time from calving, we mean that there 
is more organic substance and less water in a quart when the cow has been 
milked six months than when she has been milked only one month. The 
quantity, the whole " mess " yielded each day, will be larger at the end of one 
month than at the end of six months, and on that account the amount of the 
organic substance in the whole " mess " will be greater in the former case, 
while the amount in one quaint will be greater in the latter. And when we 
say that variations in the quantity of the fodder are without effect upon the 
quality of the milk, we mean that the relative amounts of fat, sugar and albu- 
minoids in the organic substance of the milk are unaltered thereby. Suppose 
now I feed a ration, say twenty-five pounds of second quality hay, from which 
my cows yield an average of twenty pounds of milk a day, containing two 
and a-half pounds of organic matter, of which forty per cent., or one pound, 
is butter. I increase this ration, or make it richer by the addition of turnips, 
oil-cake, &c., and obtain a yield of twenty-four pounds of milk, or one-fifth 
more. I have then a corresponding increase of one-fifth in the organic 
matter and the butter, and three pounds of the former and one and one-fifth 
of the latter. 

There is just one more point to be explained. The experiments show that 
the composition of the oi-ganic substance remains unaltered by changes in 
the fodder ; but how is it with the relation of water and organic substances 
— the richness in the milk ? Will not green fodder, or pasture-feeding, give 
a more watery milk, and consequently a larger yield ? I am not aware that 
this especial subject has been tested with sufiicient thoroughness to decide the 
question. It has long been the opinion of practical men that a dry fodder 
would make a richer milk than green fodder. The later German experiments 
seem rather to oppose this idea, or at least to show that their effect is much 
less important than has generally been believed. 

But so much is certain : When I have once found a ration upon which my 
cows will thrive, each one of them will give a certain amount of milk, the 
organic matter of Avhich will have a certain composition. By varying the 
ration I can vary the total yield of milk and of organic substance — that is to 
say, of butter and cheese produced, and may possibly bring about a slight 
change in the relative amounts of organic substance and water ; but the 
amount of organic substance in a quart of milk will vary but slightly, if at all, 
and the quality and the amount of butter in an ounce of organic substance 
will be practically unaltered. 

Had but one experiment of this sort been made, the use of its conclusions 
for establishing rules for practice would be open to objection. But the better 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 175 

scientists of the present day have learned the fallacy of building conclusions 
on such narrow foundations, and taking warning of the fall of earlier and 
poorly supported theories, are loth to proclaim a theory to the world until it 
has a reasonable basis of experiment. 

Dr. KuHN has carried out quite a number of investigations similar to the 
one above described, and several other well known investigators have been 
for some time past at work upon the same subject. One of these latter, Pro- 
fessor Wolff, Director of the Experiment Station at Hohenheim, in Wurt- 
emberg, gives the result of a long series of investigations in the following 
language : 

" One interesting result of these experiments is, that the quality of the 
milk — the amount of butter it contains — leaving the taste out of account, has 
always remained the same, in spite of manifold and important changes in the 
quality of the fodder. In fact, the changes in the amount of butter in the 
milk, as determined by chemical analysis, are so unimportant as to be entirely 
unworthy of consideration. As the practical result of this, we are left to 
infer that the quality of the food exercises no influence upon the quality — the 
content — of butter in the milk, while, on the other hand, the effect of fodder 
becomes readily and distinctly manifest in the quantity of the milk yielded, 
and in the increase or decrease of the live weight of the animals. The 
quality of the milk seems, therefore, to be determined by the peculiarities of 
the breed or the individual animal, at least as long as the fodder is healthy, 
palatable and sufficient in quantity." 

Dr. KuHN gives the result of his own experiments, in so far as they are 
directly applicable to practice, in similar language : 

" The influence of variations in the fodder in these experiments was mani- 
fested in the amount of milk yielded alone, and not in the quality. The 
influence upon the quantity is, however, quite apparent. As regards the desire 
of the farmer to increase the production of a certain element of the milk, as, 
for instance, butter, by a change in the quality of the fodder, the above law 
is fully valid. The farmer must, on the other hand, look to the peculiarities 
of different breeds of cattle for that quality of milk which is best adapted to 
his own special purpose. If he would increase the quantity of milk yielded he 
must select such individuals as give a good yield." 

Foddering, then, if rightly managed, may increase the quantity of the 
milk, but will not alter its quality. Must, then, the milkman who sells his 
milk in the city, and the country dairyman who makes butter and cheese, be 
content with the same quality of milk ? — or is there some other means by 
which each may obtain a milk adapted to his special purposes ? Dr. Kuhn" 
suggests the answer to this question at the close of the paragraph just quoted. 
The subject is an important one ; let us pursue it a little further. Every man 
who will realize the largest profits from his cows must see to it, Jirst^ that he 
has good inilkers • second^ that he feeds them well. If he desires a large 
yield of butter, he must select breeds and individuals whose milk is rich in 



176 



Pbactical Dairy Husbanvby. 






butter. If he sells his milk in the town, and does not care so much for the 
quality, as long as the quantity is large, he will do best with other breeds and 
other individuals. At least so say the best German authorities, and they 
have experimented enough upon the subject to entitle their opinions to 
confidence. 

What is believed here in Germany concerning the best method of fodder- 
ing, and how science and practice have contributed to the grounding of 
German theories on " rational foddering," will perhaps form the subject of 
another article. It will be more appropriate here to notice something of 
what statistics, experiments and practical experience say as to the milk and 
butter-producing qualities of difierent breeds. 

la Saxony and Prussia, where a great deal of attention has been given to 
this matter, the Hollander, the Holsteiner and Oldenbui-ger breeds, from the 
lowlands of North-western Europe, the Allgauer, from the mountainous 
regions of Southern Bavaria, and the English breeds — the Ayrshire, Suffolk, 
Cheshire, Yorkshire, &c.— rare the most popular as milkers ; while the Short- 
Horns, &c., are preferred for fattening. 

The statistics of a large number of farms in the Kingdom of Saxony, for 
the year 1853, show that the average yield per cow in the year 1853 was : 





Qts. of 

SULK. 


Lbs. op 

BUTTER. 


Lbs. of 

butter in 

100 LBS. OF 
MILK. 


Allgauer 


2,664 
3,859 
3,110 


369 
253 
190 


10.1 


Hollaiidt;!' 


8.8 




8.5 







Whence it appears that the Hollanders are the largest milkers, but that 
the Allgauers give a milk much richer in butter ; one hundred pounds of milk 
from the former making 10.1 pounds of butter, of the latter only 8.8 pounds. 
A very natural conclusion from this would be for the butter-makers to select 
Allgauers, and the milkman who sells his milk in town to fill his stables with 
Hollanders. And, indeed, among the milkmen in this region, Hollanders are 
the most popular breed. 

As to the qualities of the English races as butter producers there seems to 
be a lack of accurate statistics. The best sources represent the average 
butter production in England at one hundred to two hundred pounds per cow, 
yearly ; and in the lowlands across the Channel — Holland and Holstein — at 
considerably less, or some one hundred and twelve pounds, which would make 
the English cows better butter-producers than the Hollanders. Yon Weck- 
EKLEiisr, a note^d German cattle-breeder, who has made this subject a matter 
of a great deal of observation and experiment, puts the English breeds, the 
Yorkshire and Suffolk, a little below, and the Devons and Herefords some- 
what above the Allgauers, but finds them all superior to the Hollanders in 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 177 

richness of milk. The Short-Horns have likewise the reputation of giving 
better quality but smaller quantity of milk than the Hollanders. 

In general in Germany, where English, French, and German breeds of 
cattle have been tried quite thoroughly, the Short-Horns are, as far as my own 
observation goes, looked upon as most excellent for fattening ; the Allgauers, 
Devons, and Herefords are much liked for butter and cheese-making, while 
the Hollanders are special favorites among milkmen. 

It seems to me that these two breeds, the Allgauers and Hollanders, 
deserve rather more attention among our cattle-raisers in America than they 
have as yet received. We are quite well acquainted with English breeds, but 
the German are almost unknown to us. And yet the most intelligent 
German farmers, who can import Devons and Durhams as well as Hollanders 
and Allgauers, and who have tried all these races faithfully, give the decided 
preference to the Allgauers and Hollanders as milkers, and consider the 
Short-Horns superior only in fattening qualities. 

The Allgauers are small or medium-sized, jBne-boned, thick-set, and very 
finely built. The large amount of milk yielded by this breed, its richness, 
and at the same time their small consumption of food, make them most 
desirable cows for the dairy. Some herds average between two thousand five 
hundred and two thousand six hundred quarts per head yearly. For regions 
where fodder is uncertain, and not over good quality, the Allgauers can be 
very highly recommended. The Hollanders, on the other hand, are lai'ge and 
stout built — the cows often weigh sixteen hundred and fifty or even seven- 
teen hundred pounds, and are remarkable for their very large milk production, 
amounting in some cases to nearly four thousand five hundred quarts per 
year, though not very rich in butter. They require, however, rather high 
feeding, but, on the other hand, are very easily fattened. On these accounts 
the Hollanders are specially adapted to the neighborhoods of large towns 
where brewery, and distillery refuse and commercial food, as oil-cakes, are 
cheap, and the fresh milk finds ready sale." 

Now this difiers from the opinion expressed by Prof Voelckee, who 
says that : " Milk may be regarded as a material for the manufacture of 
butter and cheese, and according to the purpose for which the milk is 
intended to be employed, whether for the manufacture of butter, or the 
production of cheese, the cows should be difierently fed." And he remarks 
further, that " Butter contains carbon, hydrogen or oxygen, and no nitrogen. 
Cheese on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty 
matter, or substances which in the animal system are readily converted into 
fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the other hand 
the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of 
highly nitrogenized food. Those therefore who desire much cream, or who 
produce food for the manufacture of butter, select food likely to increase the 
proportion of butter in the milk. On the contrary, when the principal object 
is the production of milk rich in curd — that is, when cheese is the object of 
12 



178 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

the farmer, clover, peas, and bean meal, and other plants which abound in 
Legumin — a nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties 
of composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the curd of milk 
— will be selected. As a matter of pure theory, the latter position seems to 
be the more reasonable. And in practice it has been observed by our dairy- 
men, that when pastures have a good proportion of the finer clovers, 
especially the white clover, the cows feeding upon them yield abundant returns 
in cheese. So also in spring feeding, when bran and pea and oat meal are 
used in connection with hay, a much larger percentage of cheese is produced 
than when fed upon Indian meal. But carefully conducted experiments, with 
accurate analyses of the milk, would add much to our stock of knowledge on 
this vexed question of animal foods. Indeed, Voelckee remarks in some 
of his more recent investigations, that we cannot increase or improve, ad 
infinitum^ the quantity or quality of milk. Cows which have a tendency to 
fatten when supplied with food rich in oil and in flesh-forming materials, like 
linseed cake, have the power of converting that food into fat, but they do not 
produce a richer milk, and they may even produce it in smaller quantity. It 
is this which renders all investigations on the influence of food upon the 
quantity and quality of milk so extremely difiicult. According to theory, 
it would appear that food rich in oily or fatty matter would be extremely 
useful in rich milk, but in practice we sometimes find that it produces fat 
and flesh instead. Sometimes its influence is even injurious, for cows supplied 
too abundantly with linseed cake produce milk which does not make good 
butter ; and he refers to an instance of this kind where the milk of cows so 
fed furnished cream that could not be made into butter, and when put into 
the churn it beat up into froth, nor by any manipulation would the caseine 
separate from the butter. Yoelcker says, on examining this milk, and 
trying to separate as much as possible, the solid or crystalized fat from the 
liquid fat, I found that the latter was very much in excess of the former. 

CLIMATE 

has a most marked efiect on the quality of milk. In moist, cool seasons, 
though a larger quantity of milk is produced, it is poorer, the amount of 
solid matter being less than in dry, warm seasons. This peculiarity has often 
led to serious errors in estimating the probable yield of dairy products in New 
York. In cool, moist seasons when pastures are abundant and cows are 
yielding a comparatively large flow of milk, a largely increased product of 
cheese is predicted, but at the close of the season, to the great surprise of 
many, the quantity falls below that of dryer seasons. I have known the 
annual product of cheese to fall off in Herkimer county, in such seasons, 
very considerably. As to the causes of this variation, something no doubt 
is due to the greater amount of water in the food present in wet seasons, 
but how much is due to temperature and moisture of the atmosphere, or 
Its efiect on the health and condition of the animal, we do not know. That 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 179 

the general state of health and condition of the animal has an influence on 
the quality of the milk need hardly be stated. 

THE SIZE AND BREED 

of the animal, as we have previously remarked, have an important influence 
on the quality of milk, and generally speaking the small breeds are better for 
butter, and the larger breeds for cheese. 

THE FIKST MILK 

after the cow has given birth to her young, contains an unusually large 
quantity of caseine. Bossingault found on analyzing such milk, that it con- 
tained, in one hundred parts, about four times as much caseine as in ordinary 
milk, the constituents being as follows : 

Water, 75 . 8 

Butter (pure fat), 2.6 

Caseine, 15.0 

Milk sugar, ' 3.6 

Mineral matter, 3.0 

100. 
This peculiarity disappears after eight or ten days, and the milk assumes 
its ordinary condition. 

THE STRIPPINGS. 

What are the " strippings " ? Probably about one-half of the people in 
cities, or a large share of those born and brought up in cities, if they were 
to choose milk as drawn from the cow, would take that which is first milked. 
I was looking over a somewhat noted dairy recently, while the hands were 
milking. In this particular dairy it was customary to save the " strippings " 
by themselves, keeping them separate for a special purpose. While one of 
the milkers was drawing the strippings, a very intelligent gentleman who 
was visiting the family, came out with a cup to get a drink of warm milk. 
Following the milker to the dairy, where the milk was to be strained in pans, 
our visitor was invited to hold his cup under the strainer of the " strippings." 
" No," said he, " I do not care to take the dregs ; I want the richest milk, 
and will take that which was drawn first, in the other pail." 

When the milkmaid told him the " strippings," or last drawn milk, was 
nearly all cream, and that it was set apart for making choice butter, he mani- 
fested the greatest surprise, and said the thing was entirely new to him. A 
great many people are no wiser. Now, cream being lighter than milk, the 
denser or heavier portion of the milk is drawn first from the udder, while 
the lighter parts, rich in butter, remain back, and make up what is known 
among dairymen as " the strippings." 

It will be seen, then, how important it is that the last drop of milk in the 
udder should be drawn while milking, and that when particular attention is 
not given to this point the loss is much more serious than a waste of the 



180 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

same quantity of first drawn milk ; for the one is thin cream, while the other 
is nothing more than plain milk. There is another loss, of course, in not milk- 
ing clean, as it has a tendency to dry up the cow, or lessen the secretion of 
milk from day to day. It is very difficult to impress milkers with the impor- 
tance of drawing the " strippings " from the udder. Many milkers are in 
the habit of finishing their work just as soon as the free flow of milk ceases. 
Such milkers, it is needless to say, entail a heavy loss on the dairyman in the 
course of the year, and if they milk many cows they waste more than their 
wages. The " strippings " make a very nice quality of butter, and some 
butter makers think it pays well to keep them separate from the first drawn 
milk. It is a little more troxible to the milker to separate the " strippings," 
as it necessitates having a " stripping pail," but there is no doubt that it 
educates milkers to milk clean, if of no other advantage. 

THE MILK OF DISEASED COWS. 

I am convinced from extensive observation that great ignorance or 
thoughtlessness prevails among many in regard to the use of bad milk. 
From numerous experiments during many years, in feeding the milk of 
" ailing cows " to pigs and calves — the milk from those cows that happen to 
be ill from time to time in my oAvn dairy — I long since became satisfied that 
such, milk is a much more fruitful source of disease than is commonly 
imagined. In dairies, whether the milk is to be delivered at the factory, or 
made up on the farm into butter and cheese, or sent to the town or city for 
consumption, what is the usual practice of the milk producer ? Is it not to 
be feared that the milk of diseased cows — of cows whose feet or udders ai'e 
afifected with sores or ulcers, and discharging corruption — is sent forward to 
be used as human food in the majority of instances ? Many doubtless have a 
faint notion that the milk of a sick cow, or one afflicted with sores or ulcers, 
is not just the kind of milk to be used, and is not such as they would care to 
use in their own families; still, as there would be a loss in throwing such milk 
away, the conclusion is that it can do no injury to other people, and so long as 
the consumer is ignorant of all the facts no harm is done. Others affirm, and 
doubtless believe, that the milk of a sick cow when mingled with other milk 
and made into butter and cheese, becomes in some way purified in the process 
of manufacture, so that nothing unwholesome remains in the butter or cheese. 
The difficulty of always tracing disease to its true source and of detecting 
the poisons thrown off in the milk of diseased animals, may help to hide the 
culpable practices of dairymen and milk producers, but the moral wrong 
remains the same ; and I cannot but think that the nuisance would in part 
become abated, if people were fully convinced they were sending out food 
heavily freighted with the elements of disease and death. If the loss from 
bad milk must be in some way mitigated, would it not be better to make the 
saving by feeding it to pigs or calves upon the farm, since the health or life 
of an animal is less valuable than that of human beings ? 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 181 

Prof. Gamgee, in his address before the American Dairymen's Associa- 
tion, in referring to the foot and mouth disease, then so prevalent in England, 
says : — " The poison of this disease is found in the vesicles within the mouth, 
and is discharged with the gallons of saliva secreted daily, under the irritation 
produced by the eruption on the tongue, palate, cheek and lips. It is also 
formed in vesicles on the teats, and finds its way into the milk, and thus it 
kills young pigs, calves, and even children that get milk fresh or undiluted." 
And he remarks further, that although he " has no facts to indicate whether 
cheese and butter would retain the virus for any length of time, yet in all 
probability they would ; and a trustworthy observer assured him some 
years since, that a pudding made with milk from a sick cow, though boiled, 
produced the disease in a family of five grown persons." The unwholesome- 
ness of milk from city dairies, Avhere the cows are kept in underground 
stables and fed largely on distillers' slops and refuse garbage, has been proved 
over and over again, from the investigations of scientific men. Country 
milk has been generally supposed to be perfectly Avholesome and harmless, 
but if all the facts concerning its production were known, I fear it would 
often be found very objectionable as an article of food. 

INJURY TO MILK FEOJI COWS I^THALING BAD ODORS. 

The injury to milk from cows inhaling bad odors is not well understood, 
or at least has not elicited much attention from those who have had the care 
of milk stock, and made dairying a specialty. It is only of late years and 
since the inauguration of the factory system, that American dairymen have 
had their attention called to the various causes influencing the quality of 
milk. We have now a class of men following a distinct and special calling 
— men whose time and thoughts are almost wholly given to the manipulation 
of milk in butter and cheese manufacture. 

The competition between different factories and the discrimination made 
by dealers in dairy products, have stimulated these workers in milk to make 
close observation and inquiry concerning the condition of milk; and their 
investigations have brought to light many things that are new respecting the 
material upon which they are employed. From the investigations of these 
men, old theories, long promulgated as truths, have been exploded and shown 
to be false. As we become better informed as to the nature of milk, and the 
causes influencing its quality, our dairy products improve, and any one who 
has watched the progress made in this department during the last half-dozen 
years, cannot but come to the conclusion that American dairy products are 
destined to reach a standard of flavor and quality surpassing in excellence 
anything that has hitherto been produced. 

Among the new class of questions now claiming the attention of intelli- 
gent cheese manufacturers, is the one we have named, viz. : the influence upon 
milk resulting from cows breathing bad odors while at pasture. That milk 
is often tainted in this way has long been suspected by observing cheese 



182 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

manufacturers, though it was difficult to trace out the cause and establish the 
principle. A few years ago Mr. Foster of Oneida Co., N. Y., brought this 
question prominently before the American Dairymen's Association and gave 
undoubted evidence that bad milk could come from such a source. He was 
having considerable trouble with the milk at his factory, and finally traced it 
to his own dairy, where the greatest care was taken in milking, in the clean- 
liness of milk vessels, and everything pertaining to the dairy. This fact led 
him to investigate the matter thoroughly, to examine the water and feed with 
which the cows were supplied, together with the health and treatment of the 
stock, in the hope of discovering the cause. Finding nothing at fault in these 
particulars, and the trouble still continuing, the conclusion forced itself upon 
him that the cause must come from the cows inhaling bad odors. In a field 
adjoining one part of his pasture a neighbor had left exposed a dead horse, 
which in its decomposition carried a bad odor over that part of the pasture. 
Here the cows in feeding inhaled a sufficient quantity of the offending gases 
to taint the milk, as he concluded ; for on calculating the time it was found 
that the trouble with the milk dated at about the period the horse was left so 
exposed. Arguing from these premises he had the putrifying carcass removed 
and buried, when the trouble in the milk immediately disappeared. 

Mr. L. B. Aenold, a very close observer and of much experience in 
handling milk, gives a similar account of tainted milk caused by cows breath- 
ing air polluted by carrion. In this case the trouble in the milk was traced 
to one particvilar dairy, and a committee was appointed to visit the premises. 
The committee found nothing at the stable, in the milking nor in the general 
care of utensils, to cause tainted milk. But on examining the pastures they 
did find the air polluted by carrion, upon the removal of which, as in the 
other case, the taint in the milk at once disappeared. I could enumerate 
other cases of similar character, and the evidence warrants the conclusion 
that milk can be tainted in hot weather by cows inhaling a polluted atmos- 
phere like that we have named. If the facts are worthy of credit, and the 
conclusion is correctly drawn, it opens up a very important question for 
dairymen, in the production of milk. 

IS MILK IMPROVED BY EXPOSURE TO THE AIR WHILE COOLING? 

One of the leading questions now being discussed by cheese manufacturers 
is, the importance of cooling milk at the farm and as soon as drawn from the 
cow, if it is to be carried to the factory. I was the first to bring the subject 
to the attention of New York dairymen several years ago, and though I 
have persistently urged its importance from time to time, it is only quite 
recently that its necessity has been generally acknowledged. 

That milk properly cooled at the farm will arrive at the factory in better 
condition than it would had the animal heat been retained, no one having any 
experience in handling milk at a factory for a moment doubts. Experiments 
upon this point have been numerous, and results have demonstrated the fact 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 183 

in the most positive manner. But while it is now universally admitted that 
cooling has a preservative influence upon milk, it is not so clear to all that a 
free exposure of it to the air during the cooling process improves its flavor. 
There are those who contend that the cooling of milk by any process, will at 
the same time deodorize it ; in other words, that the animal odor is a " bug- 
bear " — that milk as soon as drawn from the cow may be placed in an air-tight 
vessel, and cooled down to 60°, and may then be carted to the factory, and 
will be as perfect in flavor and condition as it would if all its particles had 
been freely exposed to the air during the process of cooling. The question 
is one of considerable importance, since there are two classes of coolei's 
before the public ; one representing the first and the other the last principle. 
I have always held that freshly-drawn milk is improved by being exposed to 
a current of pure air ; that the health of the cow, her food, water, and various 
other circumstances have an influence upon her milk, rendering it at times 
imperfect, and rank in flavor ; and that its exposure to the air takes out, in 
some degree at least, disagreeable gases, making it more palatable. We 
know that other substances infected with a disagreeable odor are often 
improved by being exposed to the air, or are freed of it altogether ; and it 
is not easy to see why milk may not be subject to the same law. Perhaps if 
milk was always in perfect condition an exposure to the atmosphere while 
cooling would not be deemed so impoi'tant. 

I cannot say that with all milk at all seasons, an exposure to the air for 
the purposes referred to would be necessary. That must be a matter of 
experiment and investigation. But the fact that milk is produced often under 
unfavorable circumstances ; and that it sometimes possesses a taint before it 
is drawn from the cow, would seem to favor the notion that airing it would 
be beneficial. The exposure to the air of milk coming from cows fed upon 
turnips may not free it altogether from the turnip flavor ; but the chance for 
its improvement, I think, would be greater from this treatment than to shut 
it out from the air, and to cool it in a way that permits no gases to escape. A 
few years ago I prevailed upon Mr. Arnold to investigate and experiment in 
this matter, in order to see if my own experiments and conclusions were 
correct. He arrived at the same results. In order to show that there is no 
necessary connection between animal heat and animal odor, and that animal 
heat does not difier from heat derived from other sources, he made the follow- 
ing experiments, which I give in his own words : 

" By abstracting the heat rapidly by an application of ice and cold water, 
I easily succeeded in removing the heat and leaving the odor in the milk. It 
is true that in experiments for this pui-pose, the odor was not so apparent to 
the olfactory nerves as to the organs of taste. The animal odor became an 
animal ^avor. But upon warming the milk again the odor revived. Then 
by the use of a filter of pulverized charcoal, I succeeded perfectly in remov- 
ing every trace of animal odor from milk when first drawn and leaving the 
animal heat in the milk." 



184 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

After pointing out what animal odor is, he says : — " Because the cowy 
smell has died away when the milk is down to 70° or below, it has usually 
been supposed that the odor or cause of the odor was whoUy removed. But 
it is by no means necessarily so ; for unless the cooling has been very slow, 
or the milk has been spread so thin as to make the exit of the gases easy, 
the cause of the odor (the condensed gases) will be there, and be readily 
detected by the taste ; and at 68° or 60° it will remain there until the milk 
sours. The cowy flavor is most effectually preserved when milk is cooled in 
a close vessel shut out from the air, and the heat absorbed away by an appli- 
cation of ice and cold water." 

Again : " The gas in milk varies both in quality and relative effect. For 
instance, it is in the smallest amount when the cow is in good health and 
quiet. It is more abundant when actively exercised, as when sharply driven 
to the yard by dogs. It needs but little hurrying, especially in the morning, 
to make the effect apparent in cheese. It is different in health and disease, 
and very abundant and very infectious in cases of fever. There is more in a 
state of debility than of strength ; and more when pinched with cold than 
when comfortably warm. 

" The most marked effects that I have observed, have been produced by 
the odor of milk from cows in a feverish state — a state that may generally be 
detected readily by smelling the milk. It becomes so infectious that a small 
quantity — the milk of a single cow even — will infect a whole vat full of good 
milk. In connection with the rennet, it becomes a ferment, inducing rapid 
changes in the milk and curd. New gases are evolved, which, becoming 
more elastic as the temperature is raised, swell out the lump of curds, giving 
them a soft spongy feel, till at length their bulk is so much increased that 
they float in the whey. But perhaps some will say this is the result of 
diseased milk ; it is not chargeable to animal odor ; the milk is faulty. I 
once thought so too, but I have found since that I was mistaken. In the 
worst cases I have seen, the milk, for aught I can discover, is as good as any 
other. It may be somewhat altered in the proportion of its elements, perhaps 
it is, but it does not differ materially from other milk when new. I filtered 
a sample of feverish milk in the fore part of August, when the weather was 
so very hot and dry, and floating curds were so very common ; the result was 
very striking. The filter was all ready and the milk turned in as soon as 
drawn, and though it stood at about 90" when it issued from the filter, it was 
free from any offensive odor, and its flavor was delicious," and very different, 
he remarks, from milk cooled by ice-water to a low temperature. 

The remedy he suggests, is to give the gases from which the odor arises 
a chance to escape as soon as possible after the milk is drawn ; for the reason 
that they are then more elastic and escape more easily, as well also to keep 
them from imparting an influence to the milk from their presence. And he 
remarks that this should be done at the dairy^ because it is generally a little 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 185 

too ^late when milk gets to the factory. The question is one ol much interest 
to cheese-makers, and should be studied. 

CA2SnsriNG AND KEEPING MILK IN GOOD ORDEE. 

The Food Committee of the Society of Arts in England, has been discuss- 
ing, recently, the means to be employed for preserving milk in good order 
during the transit over long distances to the city. It appears that milk pass- 
ing over the Great Western Railway to London, is in cans holding sixteen 
imperial gallons. An effort has been made to reduce the size of the cans to 
a capacity of about four gallons each, similar to those adopted in France. 

THE FRENCH CAN 

has a tight-fitting cover, and the vessels are completely filled, so as to prevent 
disturbance of the particles of milk, by motion in transit. It is said the milk 
passing over the railways in France, arrives at its destination generally in 
good order. The question therefore arose as to the advantage of these cans, 
over those of larger size, if any, in the preservation of milk during its transit 
to the city. Mr. Geo. Braham, managing director of the Express Country 
Milk Company, and who appears to have had large experience in this business, 
and to have been also a close observer as to the condition of milk under 
various circumstances, opposed reducing the size of the cans, on account of 
the greater trouble in moving to and from the milk vans. He stated that the 
great secret in having milk in good condition was in allowing it to cool 
sufiiciently before being placed in the cans. The shaking of the milk in the 
conveyance would not be greater in a large can than in a small one, provided 
in both cans they were filled thoroughly full. It was his opinion if milk was 
packed at a temperature of fifty to sixty degrees, the shaking would have no 
prejudicial effect upon it. If the milk was packed at seventy or eighty 
degrees, the agitation would tend to separate the butter and to promote the 
deposit of caseine ; and if the temperature of the air was no higher than that 
of the milk, no injury would be occasioned by the admission of the air to 
the milk, while it remained in the cans. He stated that a large quantity of 
milk arriving at night was left standing at the station until four o'clock next 
morning. The milk that was put in the cans warm and the lids kept on all 
night, acquired a bad smell, and it would take from two to three hours' expo- 
sure for that smell to pass off. 

EFFECT OF AGITATING MILK IN TRAVELING. 

As to the question whether the agitation of the milk in traveling destroyed 
the cream in the milk brought into London, Mr. Baetlett replied that the 
globules would not be destroyed if the milk was put into the cans at a 
sufficiently low temperature, say sixty degrees. 

effect of SOILS ON KEEPING QUALITY OF MILK. 

The Express Country Milk Company received milk for two yeai'S from 
Wareham in Dorsetshire, a distance of one hundred and thirty miles by rail, 



186 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

and seven miles by road. It arrived in London in fine condition. This result 
was attributed in part to the chalky nature of the soil where the milk was 
produced, and to the thorough manner in which the milk was cooled before 
being packed. He stated that it was a well known fact, that the milk of cows 
fed ofl" heavy clay land, would not keep so long by several hours, as that 
produced on light or chalky soils. The influence of soil upon the keeping 
qualities of milk, is a question which has received but little attention from 
the American Dairyman, and it would be well if experiments were made to 
determine this point. 

EFFECT OF CARRIAGE UPON THE CREAM PRODUCT. 

Milk that is carried does not thi'ow up so much cream when set, as it 
would if placed in the milk house at the farm. From the experiments in 
England, the amount of cream which rose to the surface of the milk when 
set, was rendered less by about twenty per cent, through traveling, that per- 
centage being retained in the milk. As to the advantage of cooling milk 
before canning, in order to prevent cream from rising and churning into 
butter while traveling ; Mr. B. said that the express company received ten cans 
of milk from one dairy every day last summer, and there was not a particle 
of butter in them, though they traveled two miles by road to the station, 
forty-eight miles by rail to the metropolitan terminus, and three miles by van 
to the place of business. Some of the cans were only three parts full, and yet 
the cream was retained in the milk, although from being cooled it would 
take some hours longer for the cream to rise. 

HOW ENGLISH CREAM IS TRANSPORTED. 

When cream is sent in a separate state to London it is packed solid in 
bottles prepared for the purpose, and kept cool by grass or cabbage leaves 
fastened around the bottles. 

MILKING FOR THE LONDON MARKET. 

For supplying the London market with milk, the system of twelve hours 
milking is generally adopted. The milk supplied in the early morning is 
milked during the night, say from seven P. M. to two A. M., the hour 
depending upon the time the last train at night, or the early train, calls at the 
country station. The afternoon milk is milked from nine to eleven A. M., 
and is distributed between two and four o'clock, P. M. 

OPEN OR CLOSED CANS. 

The English milk can has holes in the lid of the can, through which air is 
admitted to the milk. The Parisian milk is generally acknowledged to keep 
longer than that supplied in London, and this has been attributed to its being 
hermetically closed in the can while traveling. It was stated, however, 
that the real secret of the matter was, that the French dairymen mixed 
bicarbonate of soda with their milk, which served to avert decomposition, and 
hence the milk was kept in good order, for a longer period than milk in its 
natural state. I scive the main features or substance of remarks brought out, 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 187 

as they have a px'actical bearing on the great question now agitating the dairy- 
men of America — the means of getting milk in good order to the factories. 

COAGULATIO]sr OF MILK. 

We have now come to that jiart of our subject in which some of the 
phenomena connected with the coagulation of milk, and its separation into 
curd and whey, may be considered. I shall speak in another place of rennet ; 
a term used by dairymen to designate the stomach of the young calf after it 
is properly cleansed, dried, and prepared for the purpose of coagulating milk 
for cheese making. But the explanation of its action on milk, as well as the 
thickening or curdling of milk from souring, together with other somewhat 
peculiar behavior of milk, Avhich has not been satisfactorily accounted for on 
the old theories, will perhaps best be treated in this connection. I have 
alluded to the aid which has been given by microscopic investigations in 
the elucidation of these questions, and to the theory now set up by scien- 
tific men in regard to the coagulation of milk. In the discussion of this 
topic, I can only give briefly the outline of the theory, and I shall draw 
largely in what I have to say from the recent address of Prof. Caldwell, 
before the American Dairymen's Association. But in the first place, let us 
go back a little to the j)oint where the coagulation of milk was alluded to. 
If we take a piece of the dried rennet, soak it in water, and pour the liquid 
into a portion of warm milk it soon begins to thicken, and turns into a jelly- 
like clot, and after a while it separates into whey and curd. Scientific and 
practical writers on milk have stated that the caseine is held in solution by a 
small quantity of alkali, that when in warm weather the milk curdles, lactic 
acid, which is always found in sour milk, is formed from a portion of the 
sugar of milk, and this lactic acid, by neutralizing the alkali which holds the 
caseine in solution, causes its separation from the milk. 

Rennet is supposed to act as a ferment, which rapidly converts some of the 
sugar of milk into lactic acid. Whether, therefore, milk coagulates sponta- 
neously after some length of time, or more rapidly on the addition of rennet, 
in either case the separation of the curd is supposed to be due to the removal 
of the free alkali by lactic acid. This theory, says Voklcker, is not quite 
consistent with facts. The caseine in milk cannot be said to be held in solu- 
tion by free alkali ; for although it is true that milk often has a slightly 
alkaline reaction, it is likewise true that perfectly fresh milk is sometimes 
slightly acid. We might as well say, therefore, that the caseine is held in 
solution by a little free acid as by free alkali. 

Again, newly-drawn milk is often perfectly neutral ; but whether milk be 
neutral, or alkaline, or acid, the caseine exists in it in a state of solution, 
which cannot therefore depend on an alkaline reaction. We all know that 
milk when it turns sour curdles readily. It is not the fact that a good deal 
of acid curdles milk, which I dispute ; but the assumption that the caseine in 
milk is held in solution by free alkali. 



188 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

"the actiok or eennet upon milk, 
then, is not such as has been hitherto represented by all chemists who have 
treated this subject. Like many other animal matters which act as ferments, A 
rennet it is true, rapidly induces the milk to turn sour ; but free lactic acid " 
I find, makes its appearance in milk after the curd has separated, and not 
simultaneously with the precipitation of the curd. Perfectly fresh and 
neutral milk, on the addition of rennet, coagulates, but the whey is perfectly 
neutral. I have even purposely made milk alkaline, and yet succeeded in 
separating the curd by rennet, and, what is more, obtained a whey which 
had an alkaline reaction." 

And he says further : — " What may be the precise mode in which rennet 
acts upon milk I do not presume to explain. I believe it to be an action sui 
generis^ which as yet is only known by its effects. We at present are even 
unacquainted with the j)i'ecise chemical character and composition of the 
active principle in rennet, and have not even a name for it." 

" Now, we know," says Professor Caldwell, " that any structure that 
has been built up by the vital forces acting in the vegetable or animal world, 
from the simplest plant that grows in water to the most perfect animal that 
walks on land, will, after life has departed, begin to suffer change if left 
exposed to the air under ordinary circumstances ; and this change will go on 
unless stopped by some artificial application, till the structure has nearly dis- 
appeared, and nothing more is left than would remain of the body were it at 
once put into the fire and burned — only a few ashes — while carbonic acid 
and ammonia have passed off into the atmosphere. Before this final change 
is reached, however, a great many intermediate products are formed, some 
of which are useful to man, some are poisonous, some have foul or agreeable 
odors, and some have peculiar flavors." "These changes and compositions are 
usually classified under three heads — ■ 

DECAY, EEEMENTATION AND DECOMPOSITION. 

" Decay is simply a slow combustion or burning of the body ; it depends 
upon a free supply of air from which the necessary oxygen is absorbed. In 
both fermentation and putrefaction, on the other hand, there is nothing but a 
re-arrangement of the particles or elements already in the body, sometimes 
with and sometimes without the evolution of gaseous products. If these 
gaseous products have no offensive odor, or if no ammonia is formed, the 
process is called fermentation, and generally some useful application of a 
part of the product of a fermentation is made — thus, sugar is converted by 
fermentation into a gas, carbonic acid and alcohol ; and in the preparation of 
bread we cause sugar in the dough to ferment by means of yeast, so as to 
produce carbonic acid, that in its attempt to escape makes the bread light ; 
while for beer and wine we cause sugar to ferment for the sake of alcohol. 
If, on the other hand, a part of the products have an offensive odor, or ammo- 
nia is found among these products, we call the change putrefaction. Ammonia 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 189 

is always one of the 23roducts of true putrefaction, and the offensive odor 
nearly always, though it may sometimes be weak. All substances which are 
liable to decay (fermentation or putrefaction), may be separated into two 
great divisions, namely : — Those that are composed of three elements, carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, and those which in addition to these three have one 
more, nitrogen. Compounds of the first class, like sugar, starch and fats, are 
usually very stable ; their elements are firmly united together, like the links 
of a strong chain. Compounds of the second class, on the other hand, like 
white of eggs, flesh and the caseine of milk are unstable ; the introduction 
of the element nitrogen has made a weak link in the chain. 

" Now it has been found by experiment, if the white of an egg or a piece 
of meat is boiled in a glass flask with water for an hour or so, and the mouth 
of the flask is then closed with a plug of carefully cleaned cotton, or with a 
cork through which a glass tube passes, that is drawn out to a fine orifice at 
both ends, and outside the flask has a long arm bent downward, the substance 
will remain unchanged for months, even in a place where all the circumstan- 
ces are made favorable as possible for putrefaction — free access of air through 
the interstices of the cotton plug, or through the glass tube — a plenty of 
moisture, and a suitable temperature ; and that no essential change has been 
produced in the substance by the boiling, may be shown by simply removing 
the plug, when putrefaction and decomposition will set in. On the other 
hand, if the experiment is varied only to this : that if the substance is not 
thoroughly heated to the temperature of boiling heat, putrefaction may 
speedily set in, even though the flask be closed air-tight. Now, microscopic 
examination has revealed the fact, that every case of fermentation or putre- 
faction is attended with the development or growth of living organisms; 
most of which at least belong to the vegetable kingdom, and the present most 
generally accepted view — that which has the balance of evidence in its favor 
— is, that these organisms are the cause of all fermentation and putrefaction ; 
that the dust of the atmosphere, as well as all fermenting or putrefying matter, 
contains either the germs of the microscopic fungi, or the fungi themselves 
in one stage of development or another ; that these germs fall on all sub- 
stances exposed to the air, and that if the substance so exposed is one that 
can nourish their further development, they will vegetate and increase, and in 
so doing cause the substance itself to decompose — that these fungi like all 
others, and like all plants, require moisture and a moderately elevated tem- 
perature for their growth, as well as food for their sustenance — are killed by 
exposure to a temperature of two hundred and twelve degrees, Fahrenheit, 
and that they live at the expense of a portion of the substance in which they 
grow, while the rest is decomposed, that is, fermented or putrefied, with 
the final result of the breaking down of the whole structure. Accordingly, 
the reason why the meat in the flask closed with a plug of cotton is not 
attacked, is that the germs, minute as they may be, are yet entangled among 
the fibers of the cotton, so that none reach the meat ; they do not attack the 



i90 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

substance in the flask closed with a cork and glass tube, because the germs 
being heavier than the air, can be transported only by currents in it, or by 
cohesion to some moving body. There is no current of air passing through 
the glass tube into the flask that is sufliciently strong to carry them up 
through this long arm. 

" The reason why previous boiling is necessary is, that every substance that 
has been exposed to the air has some of the atmospheric dust containing these 
germs adhering to it, which, if they are not killed, will begin to vegetate and 
excite decomposition as soon as outward circumstances are favorable. The 
reason why substances of the second class will decompose more readily than 
those of the first class, containing no nitrogen, is, not only that the elements 
of the second class are more feebly held together, as before said, but also that 
these fungi must have nitrogen iu their food, and that although they can, to a 
limited extent, draw it from the large supply in the atmosphere, if exposed 
to that, yet they can get it far more easily and naturally from the nitrogen- 
eous matter in which they take root. 

" The result of the growth of these fungi on or in a substance, or in other 
words, the products of tlie fermentation or putrefaction which that growth 
induces, depend mostly on the nature of the substance, and the particular 
stage of development of the fungus, and often, but not always, upon the 
species of fungus ; not always, for in some cases several diflferent species of 
fungi produce the same efiect upon the same substance. On the whole, the 
result depends more upon the chemical composition of the substance that is 
decomposed, than upon the species of fungus producing the decomposition. 
The transformation which these fungi undergo is very remarkable. They 
assume many different forms, adapting themselves to the chemical composition 
of the substances with which they come in contact." 

THE FUNGUS AFFECTING CHEESE, 

The particular fungus intimately connected with the art of cheese-making 
is said to be the Pencillium crustaceum. It is found almost everywhere on 
the surface of the earth, constituting generally the greenish-blue mold that 
appears on vegetable and animal matters, and is concerned in all the common 
processes of fermentation and putrefaction. It is composed of delicate white 
filaments or threads that bear on their ends the groups of spores or germs, 
which to tlxe naked eye appear like a fine, bluish-green dust. If these spores 
are scattered over substances similar in chemical composition to that which 
produced the mold, it can be reproduced again and so on from generation to 
generation. But if these spores be sown on distilled water, they swell up 
and burst, expelling a great number of minute bodies, called zoospores. These 
soon begin to grow by elongation, and as each elongates partition walls are 
thrown across, so that one sac or cell becomes sevei-al, and the multiplication 
of cells is so rapid that from a single zoospore an almost incredible number 
of new cells can be produced in a few hours. According to Hallieb these 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 191 

cells, forming delicate, brittle chains, are found in great numbers every night, 
in the mouth or throat of all the digestive organs. If the spores of the mold 
are put under a liquid rich in nitrogen they swell up and expel the zoospores, 
and then each zoospore sends, out a little bud that soon becomes detached 
from the mother cell and in its turn produces another cell, and so each new 
cell goes on multiplying. 

To this form of the fungus the name of micrococcus has been given, and 
Hallier considers it the cause of all putrefaction, and calls it putrefactive 
yeast. According to him both rennet and cheese are highly charged with 
this yeast. If the micrococcus cell be put in a liquid poor in nitrogen, it 
produces the common yeast of the housewife, which multiplies as the micro- 
coccus., and causes the common alcoholic fermentation. This form of the 
fungus is called cryptococcus. Again, if the peyicillium spores be put in 
milk which has been boiled to kill all germs in it, we have within two days 
the same result as when they were sown in a liquid rich in nitrogen, viz. : 
the zoospores and the microocccus cells, and so soon as this m,icrococcus 
appears we have souring and curdling of the milk. And when a small 
quantity of lactic acid has been thus formed a new condition has been 
assumed by the fungus. The minute m,icrococcus cells enlarge as they do 
when about to pass into the cryptococcus., but with quite another result, 
viz., the production of elongated cells, four-sided and often with abrupt 
square ends, possessing a peculiar luster and multiplying by subdivision into 
chains of cells, and this form is called arthrococcus, or jointed yeast, and is 
the ferment which attends the formation of lactic acid in the souring of milk. 

If the pencillium spores be sown in completely fermented wine or beer, 
wherein all the sugar has been converted into alcohol, we have another form 
of yeast which is concerned in the formation of vinegar. Under different 
circumstances at least six forms of cells can be obtained from the spores of 
the pencillium crustaceum., and any of these forms, if sown on a substance 
similar to that which produced the mold, will produce the same mold again. 
The wonderful rapidity with which these fungi produce new cells is shown 
by the fact that one single pencillium spore to start with will produce in the 
space of twenty-four hours, at a low estimate, four hundred million micro- 
coccus cells. The spores also have a strong hold of life. They can be dried, 
frozen and heated to any temperature short of 212®, without injury, and will 
retain their germinating power a long time, in some cases three and a-half 
years." 

Enough has been said, I think, to indicate the basis of this theory and the 
line of argument adopted. Were I familiar with microscopic examinations, 
and the peculiar habits of fungi or this low order of life, I might be able 
perhaps to present this matter more clearly ; but from a long and intimate 
acquaintance with the behavior of milk in its relation to dairy practice, I 
can judge somewhat as to these views, and they give at least a plausible 
explanation to many things connected with the action of milk that have been 



192 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

shrouded in mystery. If the cause of the conversion of sugar of milk into 
lactic acid is due to fermentation, or the result of the action of living organ- 
isms on the substance fermented, we should have such organisms here. 
Hallier and Pasteur, and others, have proved that the souring of milk is 
accompanied by a species of yeast ferment, different from the ordinary yeast 
or alcohol ferment ; it is started by the micrococcus yeast, and its continu- 
ance is attended with the production of regular lactic acid yeast cells or 
arthrococcus below the surface. In the milk as it comes from the cow we 
have the micrococcus cells already formed. Hallier proved their presence 
in sow's milk, and has always found them in the blood, even of healthy 
animals; hence it is reasonable to suppose they are in all milk. And it 
appears so long as these cells remain unchanged and do not grow and multiply, 
the milk Avill not be affected by their presence. Hallier asserts that the 
action of rennet is due simply to the fact that it, or its extract, contains in an 
extraordinary measure the micrococcus of the particular fungi which produce 
the change in milk called coagulation ; that without this micrococcus, or the 
germs that give rise to it, the change will not take place in the manner that 
we ordinarily bring it to pass ; and that the reason why if the extract of 
rennet is boiled a few minutes it will no longer coagulate milk any more than 
it will turn it sour, is because Ave have killed the fungus ; and that the coagu- 
lation is attended with, or is the result of a rapid growth and multiplication 
of the micrococcus ; consequently the curd must contain it, and by still further 
increase in the ripened cheese, that is saturated and penetrated through and 
through with it. 

HEAT AFFECTHiTG RENNETS. 

"W^hen I first commenced cheese-making, twenty years' ago, I lost a large 
number of rennets by hanging them near a stove-pipe that was kept very hot. 
The veils were exposed to this heat for several weeks, and when I came to 
use them they would not coagulate the milk. Of course I learned a lesson 
from this ; but I could not fully satisfy myself then why their action was lost ; 
but upon the theory here suggested it is evident the fungus was destroyed. 
We know, too, that excessive washing of the stomach when taken from the 
calf will almost wholly destroy its virtue ; hence the experienced dairyman 
is careful only to wipe off with a cloth any dirt that may adhere to it. The 
washing evidently removes a large number of micrococcus cells, thereby 
accounting for its loss of strength. 

Now, it appears so long as we cultivate a friendship with the micrococcus, 
giving it good, pure milk to feed upon and controlling its action by tempera- 
ture, air and cleanliness it is harmless, and we make it subserve a very useful 
purpose. But if by any means we allow other fungi, or such as originate in 
putrid matter, to get possession of the milk, their influence is harmful in the 
highest degree. Nothing is of more common observation in the practical 
handling of milk than its especial susceptibility to emanations from putrid 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 193 

matter, and so readily can these minute germs make their way anywhere and 
everywhere, that if the air containing them in unusual quantity is inhaled by 
the cows, their milk may be infected before it leaves the bag. We see then 
how important it is that the utmost cleanliness be observed with everything 
that comes in contact with milk. 

A PARTICLE OF TAINT 

in the air or on the walls of the dairy, or in the pails or vats, means a quan- 
tity of fungus germs, often a multitude of them, all ready and most willing 
to take possession of the milk and to hold it too, when once in possession, so 
that no process will expel them, except such as will ruin the product which 
we are manufacturing. From what has been said I think it will be plain that 
in this single subject of milk alone, there is ample field for investigation, 
investigation that will tax all our skill, all our talents, and which will afford 
ample material for study for a long time, and to master which in all its details 
is no holiday affair. And I must confess after twenty years' practical expe- 
rience and observation in handling milk, after years of labor in correcting old 
abuses and errors, and leading our dairymen up to the improved manufacture 
of to-day, I can still see an immense field for investigation and improvement. 
And I think there is some inducement for young men to study these questions 
and perfect themselves in dairy practice. 

FIEST-CLASS CHEESE-MAKEBS 

in New York command a salary of from |1,000 to $1,300 for the season of 
eight months, and the demand for good cheese-makers has been for several 
years larger than the supply. I am in receipt of many applications from 
factoi'ies every year for cheese-makers, only a part of which can be filled, and 
if the business continues to prosper it must continue to offer a fair field of 
employment for young men who have nothing but their hands and brains with 
which to make their way in the world. 

CONDENSED MILK. 

Within a few years past milk has been put upon the market in a form or 
condition to keep sound and fresh in flavor for long periods. The importance 
of the discovery of condensing and preserving milk can scarcely be estimated 
at the present time, but there can be little doubt, as the article becomes 
better known among consumers of milk in cities, that it is destined to revo- 
lutionize the prevailing system of the milk trade. Before proceeding to give 
some of the processes for condensing milk which have come under my obser- 
vation, the following brief history of the origin and development of the 
condensed milk trade, from the London Milk Journal, will be in place. 

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OP THE CONDENSED MILK TRADE. 

Condensed Milk should, with greater propriety, be styled " Preserved 
Milk," since, although the milk is condensed, the main object sought is, its 
preservation from decay. For many years there have been upon the market 
13 



194 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

preparations called "Desiccated Milk," "Milk Powders," "Milk Essence," 
etc. But these were articles prepared from milk, rather than actual milk. They 
found, however, prior to the introduction of condensed milk proper, consid- 
erable demand for use at sea and in the colonies, where anything that has 
the appearance of milk will in the nature of tlie case command more or less 
sale. Still they did not enter into family consumption to any extent in Eng- 
land. The desideratum was a preserved milk which should be so pure, 
wholesome and palatable, as to take the place of crude milk in large cities. 

To Mr. Gail Borden of New York, should be awarded the credit of first 
producing preserved milk that filled all these conditions. Indeed, all the 
brands of good or even fair quality now sold, are prepared substantially under 
the system originated by him. A man of intense energy and unyielding 
tenacity of purpose, and an inventor of great ingenuity if not of marked 
scientific attainments, he added to all this the enthusiasm of a philanthropist 
who believed that preserved milk would be a boon to humanity. As long 
ago as 1846 he began his experiments, conducted simultaneously with others 
whose aim was the preservation of meat. It may be mentioned here that in 
the London Exhibition of 1851, a gold medal was awarded to Mr. Borden 
for his " Meat Biscuit." "We believe that he did not at this time exhibit his 
condensed milk. It was not until about 1856 the he himself arrived at the 
conviction that he had obtained the quality he had been seeking. Mean- 
while he had expended energy, time, and quite a fortune in his experiments, 
for he at length saw that to experiment to advantage a large amount of 
material, involving much expense, must be used in each instance. 

At an early stage of his experiments, he decided that milk could not be 
preserved in a dry form as " desiccated," or " powdered," or " solidified," but 
must be left in a semi-liquid state. That some preservative agent must be 
added, and that nothing but water must be eliminated, also became apparent. 
The result is that condensed milk, as now known to the trade and consumers, 
consists of milk from which only water has been taken, and to which nothing 
but sugar has been added, the product being of the consistency of honey, and 
by dilution in water reconvertible to milk itself, somewhat sweetened. It 
may be stated in this connection, that all the dry preserved milks require to 
be dissolved in hot water, while the condensed milk prepared under the 
Borden system readily dissolves in cold watei". 

By 1861 Mr. Borden had quite extensively introduced his article, and 
four or five factories were in operation, capable of producing in the aggregate 
five thousand cans of one pound each per day. During the War of the 
Rebellion, large quantities were required for the Northern Armies, the 
officers and many privates purchasing it of the sutlers, while the hospitals 
were supplied by the Government and the various Christian and Aid Societies. 
This gave an impetus to the trade, at the same time that the shipping demand 
steadily increased. About this time Mr. Borden put upon the market for 
city use, what he calls 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 195 

plain" condeksed milk. 

This is prepared in the same way as the other, except that no sugar is 
added, and it is not hermetically sealed. It will remain sound from one to 
two weeks, and it is so convenient, as well as economical, that it is stated 
that now more than one-third of the milk used in New York City is of this 
kind. With the end of the war and the dissolution of the armies, the demand 
for sugared condensed milk fell off, and the manufacturers, who had been 
stimulated to too great a production, turned their attention to this " plain 
condensed milk." It would be well if enterprise and capital and philanthro- 
phy could be enlisted in supplying London with this form of milk, to the 
extent that New York and other American cities are now su23plied with it. 
We have no means of estimating the present extent of the manufacture of 
condensed milk in the United States. For this we must wait for the returns 
of the census of 1870. However, we know that the capacity of the eight or 
ten factories on the Hudson, in Connecticut, Pennsylvania and Illinois, is not 
less than five hundred cases of four dozen pound cans per day, equal to eight 
million five hundred thousand pounds per annum. It may be stated that one 
pound of the condensed is equivalent to four or five pouuds of crude milk. 

THE EXPOETS OF CONDENSED MILK 

(combined with sugar,) from the United States during the twelve months 
ending September 30, 1870, amounted to a declared custom house valuation 
of $200,000, equal in round numbers to £40,000. In the year 1869 it was 
imported into England from New York to the value of upwards of £16,000. 
The bulk of the remainder exported from New York was sent to South 
America, India, Australia, and China, while that sent to London and Liver- 
pool was mainly held in bond, and sent eventually to the colonies or disposed 
of as ship's stores. We now pass to the introduction of the manufacture of 
the Borden kind of condensed milk this side of the Atlantic, and to the 
development of its manufacture and sale in Europe. In 1865 an American 
gentleman who had noted the advantages of the article in the American 
army during the four years of the war, became resident in Switzerland in the 
capacity of U. S. Consul. Remembering the cheapness and richness of Swiss 
milk, the cheapness of labor, and other facilities afforded in that country, he 
conceived the idea of preparing 

CONDENSED MILK IN SWITZERLAND. 

The ultimate success of his project has abundantly proved the soundness 
of his conception. He promoted the "Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Co.," 
the extent of whose present business is set forth in the following extract 
which we take from the " Grocer " of Dec. 31, 1870. The facts seem to have 
been compiled from statistics procured at the Board of Trade, which were 
doubtless obtained from the Report of the British Legation at Berne : 

" In the Canton of Zug there has of late grown up a new mode of pre- 



196 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

serving the milk, which, owing to the good pasturage of that locality, is very 
excellent in quality. In the Commune of Cham the Anglo-Swiss Condensed 
Milk Co., with a capital of £12,000, employ about sixty operatives in their 
factory, the tall chimney of which may be seen by the railway traveler passing 
over the line from Lucerne to Zurich. The number of cows hired for the 
year is fourteen hundred and forty, and the average amount of condensed 
milk prepared daily during the three hundred and sixty-five days of the year, 
as it is necessary to include the Sundays, is one hundred and ten cases of four 
dozen each of one pound cans ; these equal one million nine hundred and 
twenty-seven and two hundred cans as the produce of the year. The price 
of the crude milk is seventeen cents per mass, or about one cent per quart, 
and the daily cost of the cans made in the establishment amounts to £16 10s. 
About one-half of the produce is sent direct to London, where one-half of 
this is consumed, while the remainder goes for ship's stores, is exported to 
the colonies and sent to the provincial towns of England. Entering as it 
does into the daily food of the masses no duty should be imposed upon it ; at 
present it is classed with confectionry and pays accordingly, whereas it is 
milk ; at all events only the quantum of sugar which it contains should pay 
duty, and this quantum is uniform and can easily be ascertained. The half 
of the produce not sent to London is distributed over Germany, and there is 
some demand from France and Russia. We have been informed that a large 
shipment was placed in Paris two days before the investment of the city, 
and balloon letters beg that a large supply may be ready to be sent in so soon 
as the siege shall terminate. Owing to the demands from the sutlers who 
supply the armies of Germany and France and the various aid societies for the 
moment, this company is only able, with great difficulty, to keep an adequate 
supply for their regular demands. The process of condensation has already 
been fully described to our readers, who are now asked to patronize not only 
other Swiss condensed milks but Irish condensed milk also. 

" It should be mentioned that this company was the first in Europe to 
introduce condensed milk to family use. Until its advent the article was 
known as only for ship's stores and for colonial consumption. By extensive 
and systematic advertising, and through the boundless energy which charac- 
terizes your business Yankee, this company has received a large demand for 
ordinary family consumption, not only in England but also in Germany and 
Russia. In this respect its success may be largely attributed to the fact that 
Baron Liebig and other authorities on questions of food, supported it heartily 
from the first, and allowed the patronage of their names for publication. Its 
success led naturally to the springing up of competitive companies. These 
Jiave been established at Gruyeres and half-a-dozen other places in Switzer- 
land, in Bavaria, in Holstein, in Ireland, and in England. But failing to 
produce a standard quality, and wanting in prestige^ they have nearly all 
ceased to manufacture." 

All now known to the London trade are the " Anglo-Swiss " (Milk-maid 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 197 

brand), Mr. Newman's "Irish Condensed Milk," at Mallow, near Cork, 
(Harp brand), and the "English Condensed Milk Company," (Lion brand), 
whose works are at Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire. At one time the milk pre- 
pared at Gruyeres had a good sale in London, but since the outbreak of the 
war, in July, none of its brand has appeared here. In the spring of 1869 it 
was announced that the 

IRISH CONDENSED MILK 

(Mr. Newman's) was about to be put upon the market. However, it was 
not introduced until the spring of 1870, but then under powerful patronage. 
We cannot say definitely what quantity Mr. Newman has prepared, but we 
have reason to believe that it was about ten thousand cases of four dozen 
one pound cans each. 

THE " ENGLISH CONDENSED MILK COMPANY " 

began to manufacture about the 1st of September, 1870. The editor of the 
Food Joui'nal recently visited its works at Aylesbury. He seems to have 
been very much struck by the system under which this Company prepares its 
condensed milk; he remarks upon the " almost absurd cleanliness " observed. 
We gather from his statement that this Company makes about twenty cases 
of four dozen one pound cans six days per week. It seems that, unlike 
the Swiss Company, they do not work Sundays. This company was registered 
June, 1870, under the Limited Liability Act, as having a capital of £5,000 
only, but it is fair to suppose, considering the extent of its works, that its 
capital has since been considerably increased. It will doubtless still add to 
its facilities as the demand increases. We have good authority for stating 
that neither the Swiss nor the English Company has lately been able to 
supply the call for their products. On the other hand, the competition 
between the companies is so eager and keen, and prices thereby have been so 
reduced that any new company will have to encounter great difficulties before 
it can establish itself 

It would be invidious in us to express any opinion as to the comparative 
merits of the condensed milk ofiered to the public by these several companies. 
That is the public's own concern ; the best and cheapest will in the end win, 
as it is the nature of trade. The value of the condensed milk sold in London 
daily is not less than £150. It is to be found at most shops in London, for 
sale at tenpence per can, which is cheaper than ordinary crude milk." 

THE BOEDEN FACTORIES — PROCESS OF CONDENSING. 

Persons proposing to enter upon the business of condensed milk manu- 
facture should visit some establishment of the kind, and make themselves 
familiar with the various parts of the process, obtaining a knowledge of the 
buildings and machinery in detail. There are several factories in operation 
on the Borden plan, which is now considered the best, as with proper care a 
very fine flavored and superior article is manufactured. The principal factories 
are at Wassaic, N. Y., Livermore Falls, Maine, West Brookfield, Mass., 



198 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Winstead, Conn., and at Elgin, Illinois. The Elgin factory is quite noted for 
its fine product under the management of Mr. C. Chujrch. I have examined 
this factory and its operations several times, and present here some of the 
leading features of the establishment, and its process of condensino-. 

The main building is sixty-five feet by one hundred feet, three stories 
high. Upon the ground floor there are four rooms. The bath room is forty- 
five feet by sixty feet. Here the milk is prepared and condensed. The room 
contains a milk receiver, heating vat and well, vacuum pan and pump. The 
second room on the ground floor is to the right of the bath room, and here 
the milk is cooled. It contains three vats for cooling milk, with capacity for 
cooling fifty cans at a time. Spring water of the natural temperature of fifty 
degrees at all seasons of the year, is used for cooling the milk. The third 
room is used for a hall and store room, where sugar and tin are stored. The 
fourth room is called the meat room. Here meat is prepared for cooking and 
condensing. It has a meat chopper and force pump, the latter of which is 
used for elevating rain water from a cistern located about ninety-five feet 
from the building, and which is used for meat purposes. The boiler and 
engine rooms are attached to north side of main building. It contains two 
boilers and an engine of fifteen horse power. The chimney is eighty-five feet 
high. In the rear of the boilers is the coal house. The cheese manufacturing 
room is in the rear of the bath room, and is twenty by thirty feet. The 
receiving room, where milk is delivered, is on the left of bath room. Here 
the dairymen unload their milk and have their cans washed, steamed and 
rinsed, so as to be prepared for milk the next day. A department like this 
should be attached to every cheese or butter factory in the land, as the cans 
are thoroughly cleaned, and the steaming effectually destroys all germs of 
ferment. The second story is divided up into a room for preparing extract of 
beef; tin room, where cans are made for putting up the milk ; sealing room, 
where the condensed milk is filled into the smaller cans and sealed up, and 
lastly, a room used for an office. The third story or floor, is used for general 
store room, and together with the part leading over the boilers, is used 
for curing cheese. Connected with the establishment is an ice house, thirty- 
eight by fifty-five feet, and a box shop ; thus rendering the whoTe very com- 
plete for doing the various kinds of work which belong to the condensing 
business. 

When I was last at Elgin, I found the Elgin Condensed Milk Establish- 
ment putting up large quantities of condensed milk for the Boston and New 
York markets. This business is yet in its infancy, but the time is not far 
distant, in my opinion, when a very large trade will be done in this direction. 
City consumers who are in the habit of using condensed milk tell me they 
prefer it for ordinary use ; that they are sure of getting a pure, unadulterated 
article, and that it is cheaper even at a high price than milk ordinarily sold 
in cities, because of the shameful adulterations practiced by milkmen, and 
the liability of the milk getting sour ; losses of this kind continually occur- 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 199 

ing more than make up the difference in price, so that condensed milk is the 
cheaper of the two. Besides the convenience of always having sweet, pure, 
milk in one's house, in small cans ready for use, is an important consideration 
to the city consumer. 

THE CONDENSING PROCESS 

at the Elgin Works, is that under the patent of Gail Borden, and all his 
plans and suggestions are here strictly carried out. At this establishment the 
very greatest attention is paid to having milk delivered pure, and in perfect 
*-.^g^der. They have an admirable set of rules as a guide to each patron, and 
he is required to follow out the instructions to the letter. As these rules 
will be valuable to every dairyman who handles milk, I shall present them 
here at length. 

RULES FOR THE TREATMENT OP MILK. 

I. The milk shall be drawn from the cow in the most cleanly manner and 
strained through wire-cloth strainers. 

II. The milk must be thoroughly cooled immediately after it is drawn from 
the cow, by placing the can in which it is contained in a tub or vat of cold 
water, deep enough to come up to the hight of the milk in the can, containing 
at least three times as much water as the milk to be cooled ; the milk to be 
occasionally stirred until the animal heat is expelled as below. 

III. In summer or in spring and fall, when the weather is warm, the bath 
shall be spring water not over fifty-two degrees temperature (a day or a night 
after a heavy rain excepted), constantly running or pouring in at the bottom 
necessary to reduce the tempei-ature of the milk within forty-five minutes, to 
below fifty-eight degrees ; and if night's milk, to remain in such bath until 
the time of bringing it to the factory, to below fifty-five degrees. The 
morning's milk not to exceed sixty degrees when brought to the factory. 

IV. In winter or in freezing weather, the bath shall be kept at the coolest 
point (it need not be running spring water) by the addition of ice or snow 
sufiicient to reduce the temperature of night's milk speedily below fifty 
degrees. 

V. In spring and fall weather a medium course will be pursued, so that 
night's milk shall be cooled within an hour below fifty degrees, and morning's 
milk below fifty-five degrees. 

VI. The bath and supply of water shall be so arranged as to let the water 
flow over the top to carry off the warm water. The can in which the milk 
is cooled shall be placed in the water immediately after the milking, and shall 
remain therein until the process of cooling shall be finished. 

VII. The night's and morning's milk shall be separately cooled before 
mixing. 

VIII. No milk shall be kept over to deliver at a subsequent time. 

IX. The milk shall be delivered on the platform at the factory in Elgin 
every day except Sunday, 



200 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

X. Suitable cans of proper dimensions to transport the milk from the 
dairy to the milk works shall be furnished by the seller and the cans shall be 
brought full. 

XI. The Company shall clean and steam the cans at the factory free of 
charge, but customers shall keep the outside clean. The pails and strainers 
employed shall be by the seller thoroughly cleaned, scalded in boiling water, 
and dried morning and night. 

XII. Immediately before the milk is placed in the cans they shall be thor- 
oughly rinsed with clean, cold water, and great care shall be taken to keep 
the cans and milk free from dirt or impurities of any kind. When the cans 
are not in use they shall be turned down on a rack with the tops off. 

XIII. All the " strippings," as well as the first part of the milk, shall be 
brought. No milk will be received from a cow which has not calved at least 
twelve days, unless by consent of Superintendent or Agent, who may deter- 
mine its fitness sooner by a sample of the milk. 

XIV. The cows are not to be fed on turnips or other food which would 
impart a disagreeable flavor to the milk, nor upon any food which will not 
produce milk of standard richness. 

XV. It is further understood and agreed by the parties hereto, that if the 
Superintendent or Agent of the Company shall have good reason to suspect, 
either from evidence furnished or from the state of the milk itself, that water 
has been added, or that it has not been cooled as provided, or that it has 
been injured by carelessness, he shall have a right to refuse to receive such 
milk, or any further quantity of milk from the person so violating these 
directions and stipulations. The outlines of 

THE CONDENSING PEOCESS 

are briefly as follows : Each man's milk is examined as it is received, and if 
all right it is strained and passes to the receiving vat. From this it is con- 
ducted off, passing through another strainer into the heating cans, each 
holding about twenty gallons. These cans set in hot water, and the milk 
is held here until it reaches a temperature of 90°. It then goes through 
another strainer and into a large wooden vat, at the bottom of which is a 
coil of copper pipe, through which steam passes, and here it is heated up to 
near the boiling point. Then the best quality of white granulated sugar is 
added in the proportion of one and a-quarter pounds of sugar to the gallon 
of milk, when it is drawn into vacuum pan having a capacity of receiving 
three thousand quarts at a time. This pan is a copper cylinder with a coil of 
copper pipe inside and jacket underside also for steam. The milk remains in 
the vacuum pan subjected to steam for about three hours, losing about seven- 
ty-five per cent, of its water, when it is drawn off into cans holding forty 
quarts each. The cans are then set in a large vat containing cold water, 
the water being of a hight equal to the milk in the cans, where it is stirred 
until the temperature of the condensed milk is reduced to a little below 70°. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 201 

It is then emptied into large drawing cans with faucets, and from them drawn 
into small cans holding a pound each, immediately soldered to exclude the 
air, and when properly labeled is ready for the market. There are 

TWO KINDS OF CONDENSED MILK, 

that containing sugar as above described, and simply the plain milk without 
the addition of the sugar. The wholesale price received at this factory for 
their milk is $3.50 for a dozen cans, or a trifle over twenty-nine cents per 
pound. It will be seen that four pounds of fresh milk as drawn from the 
cow, or about two quarts by measm-e, when condensed by taking out seventy- 
five per cent, of water, will make one pound condensed milk, and therefore a 
little more than fourteen and a-half cents per quart is realized for it. I am 
not prepared to give the expense of manufacturing, but if four and a-half 
cents per quart be taken to cover all expenses and this is doubtless too large 
an estimate — we have the milk worth ten cents per quart to the producer. 

THE CONDENSED MILK 

is about the consistency of thick sirup, has a pleasant taste, and when used 
for tea or coffee is not to be distinguished from pure, fresh country milk. 
From what I saw of this establishment, and from a test of its products, I was 
convinced of its great benefits to all parties concerned, and could not but 
wish that more establishments of the kind were in operation throughout the 
country. The factory at Elgin is managed by a company, and it was paying 
farmers in the winter nineteen cents per gallon for milk. 

PEOYOSt's CONDENSING FACTORY. 

In 1865 I was at the Provost Condensing Works, in Middletown, Orange 
Co., N". Y. The establishment was then under the management of Dr. C. E. 
Crane, a very intelligent gentleman, who went over the premises with me 
and explained the various apparatuses for manipulating the milk. The 
process of evaporation here is different from that of Borden's, and was 
claimed to take less heat. We give briefly a description of the process. 
Milk is reduced and prepared in two forms at the factory. That which is 
run off without the addition of sugar is called condensed milk, and when 
sugar is used, concentrated milk. 

During the sunimer about three thousand six hundred quarts per day are 
received at the factory. The milk is weighed and tested when received, and 
emptied into long pails holding twenty quarts, similar to the pails used at the 
butter factories for cooling the milk. About eighteen quarts are put in each 
pail, and after the milk has been cooled to 60° in order to divest it of animal 
heat and expel the ammoniacal gas, the pails are immediately plunged into a 
vat of water heated to a temperature of 185° to 190°. Refined loaf sugar is 
added at this stage at the rate of four pounds for each pail or can. It is kept 
in the vat of heated water about thirty minutes, when it is poured into an 
immense pan having fifty corrugations which sets over water and upon a 



202 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



furnace in the adjoining room. Here are arranged two large fans, directly 
over the milk, which are kept in motion by machinery, the temperature 
of the milk while evaporation is going on being 160°. The fans carry off 
the water, forcing it through ventilators, out of the building, as fast as it is 
formed into vapor. It takes about seven hours to condense the milk, seventy- 
five per cent, of its bulk in water being driven off. The faucets at each end 
of the pan are then opened and the condensed fluid passes through fine wire 
strainers or sieves into large cans. These cans, when filled are rolled away 



OP£N rARD 
33FT. 



CAKHHTER mop. 



EVAPORAT/NGROOM 



CtJ/BEKSlHe Pi,NS 

L 



CUOLER 6X12 FT. 




Ground Plan or Provost's Condensed Milk Factory. 

to the tables where their contents are drawn off into small tin cans holding a 
pound each, and are immediately sealed up. The milk when condensed has 
the consistency of thick molasses, and is then sold at from twenty-five to 
forty cents per pound, according to the price of milk in the New York 
markets. The cans are packed in barrels with saw-dust, and are thus shipped 
to the markets — the milk being used in the navy and in hospitals, and in 
warm climates. 

Dr. CRAisrE informed me that milk thus prepared will keep good for years 
without the least trouble He opened cans in my presence that contained 
the preparation a year old, and I found it of good flavor and apparently 
not injured by age. It had a rich, creamy taste, rather sweet, with a flavor 
of boiled milk, but by no means unpleasant. The price paid for milk at the 
factory during the summer had ranged from four to five and a-half cents 
23er quart. In winter the price paid was seven and a-half cents per quart. 

EXPORTS FKOM NEW YORK. 

The exports of condensed milk from New York alone in 1869 amounted 
to $79,652, of which England took $21,770; Austria $9,494 ; the States of 
Columbia $9,176 ; China, $8,166 ; Brazil $3,087, and Cuba $3,093. 

USE AND MANAGEMENT OF MILK AS A DIET FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN. 

The following paper by Dr. Alfred Wiltshire, M.R.C.P., of London, 
Physician to the British Lying-in Hospital, and late Medical Inspector to 
H. M. Privy Council, is a brief but valuable treatise upon this important 
subject : 

" It may with truth be said that the value of milk as a food for infants and 
young children is incalculable. Not only is it the pabulum which thrifty nature 
provides for the nourishment of the young of the highest order of animals, the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 203 

mammalia, among which man is the chief, but it is the single article of diet 
upon which alone life can be sustained, and the body kept in perfect health 
and vigor. Most people know something of this, yet seldom think how 
variable a fluid milk may be or become according to the source whence it is 
derived or its subsequent treatment. Few, among the millions who daily use 
milk in their ordinary diet, reflect that the milk of each species of animal 
possesses peculiar and distinctive characters specially fitting it for the nourish- 
ment of the young of the same species, and fewer still that the milk of 
different individuals of a given species varies considerably ; nay, more, that 
the milk of the same individual may vary materially at different hours of the 
day, or be changed by circumstances under which it is secreted. Thus, the 
state of health, the kind of food, passion or emotion may greatly modify the 
constitution of the fluid for better or worse, though the changes thus induced 
be, especially in the case of passion or emotion, so subtle as to elude detection 
by ordinary methods of examination, and only betray themselves by their 
effects when consumed as food. It is obvious then that when we speak of 
milk we speak of a fluid which may differ essentially, as it is obtained from 
the cow, the goat, the ass or the mare, not to speak of the alterations in its 
composition which may be induced in individuals by the conditions just 
mentioned. 

"Without dealing with the subtle changes of which milk is capable, and to 
which woman's milk is more liable than that of any other animal, owing to 
her great susceptibility to emotion, or indeed without considering human 
milk at all, except by reference to it as a standard, I desire to say a few 
words upon the use and management of cows', goats' and asses' milk as food 
for infants and children, but chiefly of cows' milk, that being practically the 
most readily obtainable, if not the best. The foregoing remarks are made with 
the view of impressing upon the non-professional reader, the fact that there 
are important differences in the chemical and physical constitution of milks, 
and that the milk of any animal may not be indifferently taken, in the belief 
that being milk it is all one, whether it be yielded by a cow or a goat, an ass 
or mare. As regards results, scarcely any of us live entirely without milk ; 
either as a luxury or as a necessary of life, nearly all partake of it. But 
there is a great host of little ones, to whom indeed it is a necessary of life, 
to whom it is one of the very first conditions of existence, to whom it is 
meat and drink. As the constitutional vigor and health of adults are largely 
influenced by the conditions of their existence as children, it becomes import- 
ant that children, who in their turn become men and women, should be reared 
in the healthiest manner possible, so as to secure for them that vigor which, 
in after life, is so essential to their own well-being and that of the community 
of which they are members. We say advisedly that this cannot be done, 
that is, good sound health cannot be secured without milk — good milk. And 
this valuable article should be properly used if we would get from it all the 
benefits it undoubtedly will afford if rightly used and treated. It is upon 



204 Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 

this part of the subject I would particularly dwell : — the proper use and 
management of milk as a diet for infants and children. 

"It is hoped that it will not be requisite to insist upon scrupulous cleanliness 
in the treatment of milk. Taint of any kind, and acidity, should be looked 
upon as destroyers of its good properties. Milk, fresh, sweet and pure, is a 
most wholesome diet ; putrefying, it is harmful. 

" Before going further, it will, perhaps, be well very briefly to consider the 
chief characteristics of woman's milk, and to compare them with cow's milk. 
This will enable us to see the difference between the two ; and we shall then 
be in a position to say how cow's milk may be made more nearly to resemble 
human milk, and thus fitter for the consumption of children. Clearly this is 
a matter of some importance. The chief thing to be borne in mind about 
cow's milk is, that it is much richer in cheesy matter than mother's milk. 
The value of this knowledge will be shown presently. It is also somewhat 
richer in butter, and decidedly richer in salts. On the other hand, mother's 
milk is richer in sugar. It may be said with some truth, that cow's milk is 
" stronger " than mother's milk, for one pint of the former will contain more 
solid matter than a like quantity of the latter. To bring cow's milk to a 
condition resembling mother's milk, as regards the cheesy element, it is 
necessary to dilute it with water (I much prefer lime water as a rule) in the 
proportion of a third or a fourth of water, to two-thirds or three-fourths of 
milk. But then the resulting mixture will not be rich enough in sugar and 
fat, and to remedy this a little sugar of milk (which is now easily procurable) 
and some cream should be added. Lump sugar should be very sparingly 
used in the food of children ; it is much abused in this respect. Better not 
use sugar at all than use too much. Sugar of milk should only be used to 
the extent of slightly sweetening the prepared milk. To repeat, two-thirds 
or three-fourths pure, new cow's milk mixed with a third or fourth of water 
(the proportion may be varied according to the age, requirements or peculiari- 
ties of the child ; very young children, for instance, often thriving best on half 
and half), to every half pint of which two teaspoonsful to a tablespoonful of 
fresh cream and a little sugar of milk are added, will form a fluid resembling, 
as nearly as may be, mother's milk. If cream cannot be procured, a few 
drops of sweet olive oil Avill be a good substitute. I make mention of this, 
as I consider fat to be of the highest importance to children. Now, having 
brought cow's milk into a condition as nearly as possible resembling mother's 
milk as regards proportioii of ingredients, we may go a step further and 
endeavor to improve it as regards the quality of one of its principal ingre- 
dients, viz., the curd or cheesy element. The curd of cow's milk is much 
denser and therefore far less digestible than that of mother's milk. This is 
a fact of great practical importance. How can it best be obviated ? Before 
stating this I would refer, en passant, to a matter upon which much ignorance 
prevails. It is commonly believed that if a child brings up curdled milk it is 
a sign that it does not agree with it. The truth is, that it would not agree 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 205 

if it did not curdle after its reception into the stomach, for curdling by the 
gastric juice (an acid fluid secreted by the stomach, and endowed with pecu- 
liar properties) is one of the first and most important acts of digestion. The 
vomiting may be wrong, but the curdling is not, for as just stated, the first 
act in the digestion of milk is the coagulation of its curd. The curd formed 
from mother's milk is very light and delicate ; it is feathery, or like snow 
flakes, and thus permits of easier digestion. If a child fed upon cow's milk 
vomits lumps of curd, there must be something wrong, but the bringing up 
of a little curdled milk need not generally be taken as indicative of mischief. 
How then can we bring the dense curd of cow's milk into the flocculent 
condition observed in mother's milk ? My own observation and experience 
lead me to believe that this can best be done by diluting the milk with lime- 
water. Usually I advise the substitution of lime-water for the third or fourth 
part of water alluded to, and I have witnessed the best results ensue upon 
the adoption of this plan. If plain water be not wholly replaced by lime- 
, water, I always direct that a portion of it shall be. I believe I have the 
strongest grounds for this recommendation. In the first place, as already 
stated, lime-water renders the curd of cow's milk lighter and more digestible ; 
secondly, it helps to neutralize acidity, to which hand-fed children are espe- 
cialy exposed ; thirdly, it helps children to form teeth, often backward and 
fourthly, it is an excellent remedy against that bane of childhood, rickets, in 
which too conimon disease there is, as is well known, a deficiency of lime in 
the bony tissues, owing to defective assimilation of lime salts, the supply of 
which, moreover, is frequently inadequate. Lime-water, then, is a valuable 
addition to the milk diet of children, on several grounds. The addition of a 
small quantity of well prepared baked or boiled flour ; Chapman's entire 
wheat flour ; Liebig's food, or Robb's biscuit, may also tend to keep the curd 
from clotting into large, hard masses, and in this way such articles may prove 
useful ; but I am persuaded, that as a rule, nothing but milk diluted with 
water, or lime-water, as directed, should be given to infants for the first six 
months after their existence. 

" There is a very strong reason why starchy matters, such as arrowroot, 
etc., which can scarcely be called food, should not be given in eaiiy infancy. 
It is this : for about the first three months of life, infants do not secrete 
saliva, and unless starchy matters are mixed with saliva, they cannot contrib- 
ute any nourishment to the body ; on the contrary they become active sources 
of acidity. Farinaceous foods are, as a rule, more or less injurious on this 
account, and milk is often unjustly stigmatized as bad, owing to the admix- 
ture with it of some kind of starchy material, which is apt to excite intestinal 
disturbance in young children. Milk should not be blamed when used under 
such conditions ; to try it fairly it should be used as already pointed out. 
Some children have an aversion to milk, and for them various diets may be 
devised. It is not ray intention to speak of such diets here ; but I would 
remark that children who take milk reluctantly, or with indifierence, may be 



206 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

induced to take it more kindly by the addition of a very little pure cocoa or 
chocolate. Much of the trash sold as cocoa consists of a compound contain- 
ing starch, etc., and should accordingly be carefully avoided. Van Houten's 
Schweitzer's or Cadbuey's, are excellent. Or a little flavoring by vanilla, 
cinnamon, carraways, or a very fcAV drops of brandy or rum, will occasionally 
render milk extremely palatable to children. All these require to be carefully 
and sparingly used, especially the latter. 

A word or two further may be said upon the treatment of milk. It 
should never be boiled ; this renders it less digestible; indeed, it should not 
be more than slightly warmed, and ought never to be kept long in that con- 
dition, as fermentation is favored by warmth. It should never be exposed to 
objectional efiluvia or odors. The feeding-bottles and appurtenances, and all 
receptacles for milk, should be kept scrupulously clean ; the slightest acidity 
from such sources tainting the whole fluid, and thus rendering it hurtful. It 
need hardly be said that pure milk, the produce of healthy animals, should 
alone be used. The milk of asses, when procurable, is excellent. Goat's 
milk is useful, but is perhaps a little strong in curd, and may require to be 
treated accordingly. 

THE USE OF SKIMMED MILK AS AN EXCLUSIVB DIET IK DISEASE. 

In regard to the value of milk as a curative agent in disease, the Medical 
Times, Philadelpliia, has the following interesting statement from Dr. S. W. 
Mitchell. He says :— " My design in this and the brief papers with which I 
hope to follow it, is to give my own experience in the use of skimmed milk as an 
alterative diet in certain cases of disease. After reading Carel's paper some 
years ago, I began to employ this very useful method of treatment, and since 
then have found repeated reason to congratulate myself upon the success 
which, in my hands, it has attained whenever the cases for its use were 
selected with discretion. In dealing with the subject I shall first make some 
general remarks upon the mode of using milk and upon the effects observed 
in nearly all cases. Next, I shall relate histories of its employment in gastric 
disorders, in diarrhea, in malarious and renal dropsies, and finally in nervous 
maladies. I hope to conclude with a study of the influence of the milk cure 
upon the secretions and excretions. In following this path I shall in some 
cases differ from Dr. Carel ; but in general my views will be found to corre- 
spond with those held by this physician. The milk is to be used as free as 
possible from cream ; and if, as is generally the case in our cities, there is an 
abundance of ice to be had, I prefer to let the milk stand in a well-chilled 
refrigerator for twenty-four hours. It should then be carefully skimmed, 
after which it is fit for use. As Carel remarks, the quality of the milk goes 
for something, and perhaps too the surroundings, since I have found persons 
who could not bear the treatment in a city, while in the country they throve 
under it admirably. As to temperature, it may be given warm, not hot or 
cold, as suits the taste. In rare cases, where at first it caused nausea, I have 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 207 

had to use it with more or less lime-water during the first few days. In 
other instances the repugnance to its taste is a difficulty, and this may be 
overcome by faintly flavoring it with a few drops of coffee or with caramel. 
Other patients prefer to add to it a little salt ; but as a rule I desire to give 
the milk alone as soon as possible. 

" Quantity. — The patient takes, to begin with, one or two tablespoonsful 
on rising, and every two hours during the day. When I followed Caeel's 
rule of giving at once half-a-tumbler to a tumblerful (two to six ounces) four 
times daily, I found that few patients would bear it without nausea and early 
disgust. I increase each dose by a tablespoonful every day — say three the 
second day and four the third day. Thus, if the patient begins at eight A.M. 
he takes up to ten P.M. eight doses, that is to say about sixteen ounces. Now, 
this is the lower limit ; nor have I been able in the cases of females or delicate 
men to give it more largely at first. Indeed, few women of sickly or seden- 
tary habits are able to exceed at any time a pint and a-half daily. After the 
fourth day it is better to separate the doses as you increase their amount, 
until they are taken at four equal intervals daily, and the maximum quantity 
is attained. This varies greatly. I had one patient, a railroad contractor, 
who, living an out-door life of the most active kind, took daily for more than 
a year fourteen tumblers of skimmed milk, and this alone. Two quarts a day 
is the limit with most of my patients. I suspect, from Caeel's account, the 
Russian patients must have more hardy stomachs. 

" Where people are well enough to live afoot I have had little difficulty in 
the use of milk ; but in very feeble persons — and I have often given to such 
— I have found it absolutely necessary to use with it for a few days, brandy 
or whisky, and even beef soup, all of which I expect to abandon as soon as 
the patient can take milk enough to sustain his strength. It is needless to 
say that for a patient to take steadily a diet of skimmed milk alone, requires 
the utmost fortitude and all the moral aid which the physician can give. 
Carel thinks the first week the most difficult one, and this is usually the case; 
but sometimes the whole period of milk use is one long struggle, even after 
we begin to allow a partial use of other diet. It is not in these cases hunger, 
but simply the craving for other food which tortures the patients. Most of 
them avoid the sight of food in order to control their desires, and in one case 
I was much amused by a gentleman who said to me in a guilty tone, ' Indeed 
Doctor, but I could not help it ; I stole an egg this morning.' 

" Dr. Carel begins to alter the diet of milk after two or three weeks. 
I prefer to reach the latter limit before giving other food, but this, after all, is 
a matter for separate decision in individual cases. My own rule, founded on 
considerable experience, is this: Dating from the time when the patient 
begins to take the milk alone, I wish three weeks to elapse before anything 
be used save milk. After the first week of the period I direct that the milk 
be taken in just as large amount as the person desires, but not allowing it to 
fall helow a limit lohich for tne is determined in each case hy his ceasing to 



208 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

lose weight. Twenty-one days of absolute milk diet having passed, with such 
exception as I shall presently mention, I now give a thin slice of stale white 
bread thrice a day. After another week I allow rice once a day — about two 
tablespoonsful — or a little arrowroot, or both, as circumstances may dictate. 
At the fifth week I give a chop once a day, and then in a day or two another 
at breakfast ; and after the sixth -week I expect to return gradually to a diet 
which should still consist largely of milk for some months. In children I 
sometimes use raw in place of cooked meat for a time, but grown people will 
rarely take it, although very often they are willing to take raw soup (Liebig's.) 

THE SYMPTOMS DEVELOPED 

under the use of milk are very interesting, and not all of them are told by 
Cakel. In no case have I seen any one gain weight duriug the first few days ; 
but where the treatment succeeds, the patient soon ceases to lose, and then 
slowly gains in weight. This is usually the case in severe gastric and intes- 
tinal cases ; but in some cases the loss of weight continues even after they 
are taking an amount of milk usually sufiicient to sustain the body in an 
equilibrium. This is remarkably the case in very fat persons, who, as every 
one knows, are quite commonly small eaters. Taking three cases of dyspepsia 
at random (all women) I find this record : The first lost in two weeks fourteen 
pounds of a weight of one hundred and thirty-one ; the second lost eighteen 
pounds of a weight of one hundred and twenty ; and the third eleven pounds 
of a weight of one hundred and seventeen, her total weight at the start. In 
another case where the quantity of milk taken was two quarts daily, and the 
exercise small, the man lost weight steadily up to the time that I began to 
give bread, when the gain was immediate and speedy (case diarrhea.) Mrs. 
S., aged forty-seven, weight one hundred and ninety-four pounds, inactive,- 
sallow, feeble, dyspeptic, and a very small eater, lost in four weeks thirty 
pounds, with general gain in strength and vigor. 

THE STATE OF THE SKIN 

has seemed to improve in all cases of chronic, gastric, or intestinal disease, but 
in others there has been no change. The urine, in a few cases is somewhat 
annoying during the first week, the patient having frequent calls ; but com- 
monly no such complaint is made, although in certain dropsies I have found 
the milk to act strictly as a diuretic. The changes in the urine we shall 
have occasion to study in future. 

" The tongue is apt to become furred, and be white and rough two or 
three weeks, — in some cases so long as milk is taken ; but so far is this from 
representing a disturbed state of stomach, that the dyspeptic after a few days 
usually finds himself in the enjoyment of an amount of digestive comfort 
long a stranger to his viscera. The stools begin to show the milk tint— a 
yellowish or salmon hue — after forty-eight hours, and when the milk disagrees 
they are apt to be loose, while usually they are intensely tough and constipa- 
ted. This feature of the use of skimmed milk is at times most obstinate and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 209 

annoying. After some weeks of creamless milk, I have often resorted, in 
such cases, to unskimmed milk, and with good effect ; but it is quite clear 
that even this, in adults, may constipate, as it never does in the child. Caeel 
says that a little coffee in the morning is often sufficient to relieve the bowels ; 
and where a small cup of pure coffee can be used, this is true. I give it 
without sugar. Later in the treatment, fruit, fresh or stewed, may be used ; 
but as a rule, I find that a little Saratoga water on rising, and a half grain of 
aloes, with a grain of ginger at night, will answer ; or if these do not, then 
an enema is required. In some cases, this symptom is simj)ly unconquerable 
by any constant treatment, and twice it has forced me to abandon the milk. 
In another case — a lady who undertook the milk cure unassisted — I was sent 
for on account of violent rectal and sciatic pain which followed every effort 
at defecation. She said she had a daily stool, which was true, but the amount 
passed was trifling, and her rectum was packed, with feces so tough as utterly 
to defy injections, until I had mechanically broken up the mass. The pulse 
is usually quickened, until the milk diet is large enough to sustain the weight 
unchanged, when it falls again. In certain cases of hypertrophied left ventri- 
cle with palpitation of the heart, the immediate effect is to lower the pulse 
and quiet the heart. The nervous system is not strikingly affected by milk. 
I have once only, in a very stout and hysterical lady, seen vertigo and faint- 
ness follow its use, and forbid its continuance ; but as a rule, it is in such 
persons soothing alone. Caeel makes no mention of one symptom of which 
many have spoken to me : this is an intense sleepiness. It is common, but 
not universal, and soon passes away. 

" In this brief sketch I have told plainly my own experience, and this I 
shall illustrate by cases— only some few of which I shall relate in detail. In 
no diseases has the value of milk-treatment been more clear than in certain 
instances of stomachal disorders. It is needless to add that I have quoted 
here only such instances as had proved rebellious to all ordinary methods. 
Y. C, aged fourteen, a frail and pallid lad, employed as errand boy in a sugar 
refinery, where he had contracted the habit of continually eating sugar. 
After some weeks he began to have a sick stomach, and at length incessant 
vomiting, for which a variety of treatment was employed, without relief 
Finally it was found that he was able to keep .down small quantities of milk 
diluted with equal parts' of lime-water. The amounts taken were still too 
small to sustain life, and he wasted rapidly. At this time he fell under my 
care, and was at once put upon an exclusive diet of skimmed milk, taking two 
tablespoonsful every two hours. The vomiting ceased at once, and as the 
milk was increased in amount and the interval lengthened, he began in a 
week to gain weight. In two weeks he was doing well on a quart a day, 
and on the twenty-first day he began to take bread. At the fourth week a 
chop was added, and at the fifth week he went to the country. At this time 
he was gaining weight and color. He felt none of the gastric distress after 
the third day, but the sleepiness was well marked for two weeks. At the 
14 



210 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

second week a slight return of emesis obliged him to lessen the dose for a 
few days. In him, as in most young people, the constipation was readily 
overcome by a rhubarb pill at bed time. 

" Miss C, aged fifty-two. Has had for a year, attacks of violent pain, 
which are referred to the pit of the stomach, or rarely lower. They had no 
relation to her meals, but were easily brought on by fatigue. The natural 
ending of these spells seemed to be in slight emesis, and for a long time the 
very least vomiting gave instant relief, which however ceased to be the case 
after a year, when the attacks had become as frequent as two to four a week. 
The most careful research discovered no gall stones in the stools, and only 
once was there bile in the urine. The matter vomited was rarely the food, 
but only thin mucus, not acid, and containing no sarcinae or other substance 
which cast any light on the case. Alkalies, tonics — for she was very pale 
and feeble — stimulants, acids, pepsin, arsenic, and bismuth, were used in vain. 
Hypodermic injections, and opiates internally, alike failed. In this therapeu- 
tic despair — even change of air having produced no good result — I advised 
the use of milk treatment ; and as her case illustrates alike the value and the 
difficulties of this plan of diet, I conceive it to be very instructive. At this 
time her attacks were of almost daily occurence. The milk was given 
cautiously — a tablespoonful eyery two hours — for two days, when it was 
doubled. On the fourth day she took four tablespoonsful at each dose, and 
at the same intervals, but was manifestly not losing weight, although weak. 
A little whisky added thrice a day bridged over this trouble, and was aban- 
doned on the seventh day. Up to this time she had no attack, nor had she 
any up to the beginning of the fourth week, when the milk was given up. 
The reason for this was twofold. Her disgust at the diet was unconquerable ; 
nor was I able by slight changes to secure good continued results. More 
complete alteration of diet brought back the attacks. I yet believe that these 
difficulties might have been overcome, but in her the milk caused a constipa- 
tion so invincible that not even the most powerful purgatives or enemas 
were of any avail. Needless to say that, from the promise of so much good 
from milk, no means were left unused to enable her to take it, but all alike 
failed us, and I was forced in this case to confess myself beaten. Mechanical 
means were finally needed every few days to break up the tough rectal 
accumulations, and so the milk was given up. The case was probably gas- 
trodynia. 

" Somewhat like it in certain respects, was the history of a man who was 
sent to me from Elkton, Maryland, by my friend Dr. Ellis. About nine 
months before I saw him he began to have increasingly severe attacks of 
pain, which came pn an hour or two after meals, and lasted nearly up to the 
next meal. The pain was sharp and was referred to the epigastric region and 
to the left side below the ribs. There was a good deal of wind, occasional 
acid stomach, and no tenderness anywhere ; bowels regular, urine high-colored, 
but free from albumen and depositing urates abundantly. He had been 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 211 

skillfully treated with a variety of drugs, but with no relief. On explaining 
to him the milk-diet, he professed himself able to carry it out. About two 
months later he returned to show himself, when I learned that he had lived 
on milk alone during the whole of this time, with immediate, enduring and 
absolute relief from all his pains. He was then directed how to return to 
his usual diet. Several months afterwards I learned that he was still living 
partly on milk, and. was well and vigorous. 

"Mrs. B., widow, aged thirty-three, had for yet^rs suffered from constant 
acid dysjsepsia, for which she had been treated by several physicians, both at 
home and abroad. Her only relief consisted in the most careful choice of a 
minimum amount of food, and in the constant use of bismuth. She weighed 
one hundred and eighteen pounds and was sallow and disfigured by an ecze- 
matous eruption. During the first day of the milk cure she only took one 
tablespoonful every two hours, and after this it Avas increased as I have 
described. In a week she was taking a little under a quart daily, and her 
weight was down to one hundred and fourteen pounds. A little whisky was 
now added, and left off at the fifteenth day, when she was taking over two 
quarts of milk. The weight continued nearly up to the end of the third 
week, when she declared that even the perfect ease obtained as eai'ly as the 
third day of the treatment was scarcely a compensation for the horrors of this 
exclusive diet. A little persuasion, however, enabled me to continue its use 
another week, when I began to give stale bread, and in a few days later 
venison. Her gain in weight from this time was strangely rapid, and five 
weeks and a-half after we began, the milk brought her up to one hundred and 
twenty-nine pounds, with a perfectly clear and spotless skin. The aloes pill 
and enema answered throughout to control her bowels. It is now nearly a 
year since this time, but despite her final abandonment of milk she retains 
alike her good looks and comfort in digestion, having had in this time only 
one relapse which yielded to a brief return to the diet. I was very much 
struck in another case, with the same remarkable improvement in the clear- 
ness and beauty of the skin which I have just mentioned. 

" Miss L., a young lady aged twenty, of remarkable personal attractions, 
was seized with a violent attack of inflammation of the ileo-cascal region, with 
the common accompaniments of intense pain, swelling, tenderness and fecal 
accumulation, with violent vomiting. After a week or ten days the bowels 
were moved and the attack subsided. The experience of several such illnesses 
finally taught me that the local use of ice over the diseased region, chloral 
internally, and no purgatives for a week, gave the best and shortest curative 
result ; but by this time the attacks recurred so easily and her general health 
had so suffered as to make some permanent relief imperative. At this period 
all the usual alteratives had failed to effect this end, and she was wasted, 
thin, and excessively sallow, with dark stains beneath the eyes. During three 
weeks only she took the milk, and I was then obliged by her urgency to add 
a chop daily. The effect of this diet was both to me and to her friends 



212 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

astonishing, in the sudden gain of weight, and in the return of clear and 
delicate skin tints. No less marked were the ease of digestion, previously 
much impaired, and the total disappearance of the hardening about the 
ascending colon. The bowels, somewhat to my surprise, were easily managed 
by a little rlmbarb twice a day. In this case I did not hope for permanent 
relief save by six months of milk treatment. So soon, however, as she felt 
well I found it impossible to secure a continuance of its use, so that after 
some months I was not surprised to see her in a new attack. The case has 
value chiefly as showing that, with a tendency to a constipative disease, milk 
may still be used, and is illustrative of the profound change which milk some- 
times effects in the nutritive system. The above cases, selected for various 
reasons, are merely representative of difficulties or successes, and it would be 
quite possible for me to multiply either class. Suffice it to say that in old and 
unmanageable cases of dyspepsia, and in neuralgic disorders related to the 
gastro-intestinal viscera, the treatment by milk has been sometimes a reliable 
resource when without it I must have been in therapeutic despair." 



ASSOCIATED DAIRimG-ITS RISE, PROCxRESS, &;C. 



I HATE said that the dairy has become an important branch of national 
industry, that it is rapidly spreading over new fields, and is engaging the 
attention of farmers in the western, northwestern and middle States, wherever 
the lands are adapted to grazing, and there are springs and streams of living 
water. It is true, there are extensive plains at the south and southwest 
where the business of dairying cannot be carried on, but broad belts and 
isolated patches of land are scattered over our vast domain, well adapted 
to grazing, and such lands, when taken in the aggregate, cover a wide extent 
of territory. 

There are two causes that have been operating the past few years to 
stimulate the development of this branch of industry, and have brought it to 
assume proportions that give it a distinctive feature of nationality. The first 
is a lai'ge and increasing foreign demand for dairy products ; the second is the 
American system of "Associated Dairies," now brought to such wonderful 
perfection that the business can be readily introduced into new sections with 
all the ease and certainty of success in producing the qualities attained in old 
dairy districts. 

The foreign demand for cheese, it is believed, will be permanent, and 
exportations from year to year must largely increase, since the finest Ameri- 
can grades are acknowledged to be equal to the best manufactured abroad. 
This fact alone gives confidence to those about entering upon the business of 
dairy farming — that it will be remunerative and enduring. 

In addition, as the texture and flaA^or of cheese have been improved, a 
large home demand has sprung up, which requires large quantities to meet its 
wants. It is believed by many that the home demand, for years to come, 
will more than keep pace with increased production ; and home sales for the 
past few years would seem to prove that this view is not without foundation. 
With a constantly increasing home trade and a reliable market abroad, no 
branch of fai'ming to-day oflTers prospects of better or more permanent 
remuneration than the dairy, 

COMMElSrCEMElirT OF CHEESE DAIEYING AS A SPECIALTY ITS HISTORY, ETC. 

The history of Ameincan Cheese Dairying has never been written, and 
perhaps a brief glance at its rise and progress will not be out of place. 



214 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Cheese making began in Herkimer county, New York, more than sixty 
years ago. For upwai-ds of twenty years its progress was slow, and the 
business was deemed hazardous by the majority of farmers, who believed 
that over-production was to be the result of those making a venture upon 
this specialty. The fact, however, gradually became apparent that the cheese 
makers were rapidly bettering their condition, and outstripping in wealth 
those who were engaged in grain raising and a mixed husbandry. 

About the year 1830 dairying became pretty general in the towns of Herki- 
mer county north of the Mohawk, and some years later spread through the 
southern district of the county, gradually extending into Oneida and adjoin- 
ing counties. Up to this period and for several years later, little or no cheese 
was shipped to Europe. It was not considered fit for market till fall or 
winter. It was packed in rough casks and peddled in the home market at 
from five to eight cents per pound. All the operations of the dairy were 
rude and undeveloped ; the herds were milked in the open yard ; the curds 
were worked in tubs and pressed in log presses. Everything was done by 
guess, and there was no order, no system and no science in conducting opera- 
tions. 

In 1840 the value of the dairy products of NewTork — butter, cheese and 
milk — was estimated by the United States census returns at $10,496,021, and 
in all the States at $33,787,008. Some idea of the comparative increase will 
be found when it is known that the value of the butter products of New York 
alone, in 1865, was more than $60,000,000. From 1840 to 1850 cheese began 
to be shipped abroad, the first shipments being inaugurated under the auspices 
of Herkimer county dealers. 

In 1848 — '49 the exports of American cheese to Great Britain were 
15,386,836 pounds. Much of the cheese manufactured this year was of poor 
quality, and British shippers claimed to have sustained heavy losses. There 
was a more moderate demand the following year, and prices fell off a penny 
a pound, varying from fair to strictly j^rime, from six to six and a-quarter 
cents for Ohio, and six to six and three-quarters for New York State. The 
exports in 1849 — '50 were 12,000,000 pounds, and continued to vary, without 
important increase, for several years. From September, 1858, to September, 
1859, the exports of cheese to Great Britain and Ireland were only two 
thousand five hundred and ninety-nine tons, and in the following year, for 
the same corresponding period, they were increased to seven thousand five 
hundred and forty-two tons. 

During the early part of the year 1860, Samuel Peket of New York 
city, a native of Herkimer, and one of the earliest operators in the cheese 
trade, endeavored to control the market, purchasing the great bulk of cheese 
manufactured in the coimtry. He was reputed to be wealthy, and had for 
years enjoyed the confidence of dairymen, and being liberal in his dealings he 
was enabled to secure the dairies by contract, making his purchases at from 
nine to ten cents per pound. Then commenced the exportation of American 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 215 

cheese on a scale hitlierto unknown in the history of the trade ; and to him 
belongs the credit of opening up a foreign market for this " class of goods." 
The exportation of cheese from New York to Europe during 1860 was 
23,252,000 pounds, which Avas increased on the following year to 40,041,000 
pounds. 

About this time (1860) the associated dairy system began to attract 
attention. Several factories were in operation in Oneida county, and were 
turning out a superior article of cheese. The system had been first inaugiirated 
by Jesse Williams, a farmer living near Rome, in that county, and was 
suggested from mere accidental circumstances. Mr. Williams was an expe- 
rienced and skillful cheese-maker, and at a time when the bulk of American 
cheese was poor. His dairy, therefore, enjoyed a high reputation, and was 
eagerly sought for by dealers. In the spring of 1851 one of his sons having 
married, entered upon farming on his own account, and the father contracted 
the cheese made on both farms at seven cents per pound, a figure considerably 
higher than was being offered for other dairies in that vicinity. When the 
contract was made known to the son he expressed great doubt as to whether 
he should be able to manufacture the character of cheese that would be 
acceptable under the contract. He had never taken charge of the manufac- 
ture of cheese while at home, and never having given the subject that close 
attention which it necessarily requires, he felt that his success in coming up 
to the required standard would be a mere matter of chance. His father 
therefore proposed coming daily upon the farm and giving the cheese-making 
a portion of his immediate supervision. But this would be very inconvenient, 
and while devising the means to meet the difficulties and secure the benefits 
of the contract, which was inore than ordinarily good, the idea was suggested 
that the son should deliver the milk from his herd daily at the father's milk- 
house. From this thought sprang the idea of uniting the milk from several 
neighboring dairies and manufacturing it at one place. Buildings were 
speedily erected and fitted up with apparatus, which, proving a success, thus 
gave birth to the associated system of dairying now widely extended through- 
out the Northern States. 

The system of associated dairies, during the last eight years, has been 
carried into the New England States and into the Canadas. It is largely 
adopted in Ohio, and has obtained a foothold in Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, 
Kansas, and other States. It is known abroad as the " American System of 
Dairying," and its peculiarities are so well adapted to the genius of our people 
as to give it a distinctive character of nationality. 

PROGRESS OF THE EACTOKY SYSTEM IN" THE STATE OF KEW YORK, AND 
CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE BUSINESS UP TO 1866. 

The number of cheese factories in the State of New York at the com- 
mencement of the season of 1866, was more than five hundred. The following 
table will show the number of factories erected in the State each year from 
1850 to 1866: 



216 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 




These five hundred factories would probably average four hundred cows 
each, making a total of two hundred thousand cows, which, at the low cash 
value of $40 each, give an aggregate of $8,000,000. The lands employed in 
associated dairying in New York in 1866 would not be less than a million of 
acres, which, at an average of $40 an acre, would amount to 140,000,000. 





NO. OF 

FAC- 
TORIES. 


COST OF 

BUILDINGS 

AND 

APPARATUS. 


PERSONS EMPLOYED. 


AVERAGE 
NO. OF 
COWS. 


FOUNDS OF MILK 
USED. 


POUNDS OT 




MAiES. 


FEMALES. 


CHEESE 
MADE. 


Allegany 

Broome 

Cattaraugus 


6 
1 
3 
1 

11 

3 

19 

8 

7 

1 

2 

31 

78 

32 

2 

34 

9 

1 

80 

4 

20 

21 

35 

4 

1 

2 

2 

2 

5 


$17,000 

3,000 

8,000 

3,500 

43,720 

1,800 

54,556 

36,354 

18,925 

3,500 

8,500 

79,975 

76,858 

52,546 

1,200 

72,100 

33,500 

225 

156,084 

12,200 

57,583 

40,100 

44,500 

9,000 

175 

1,050 

7,200 

5,580 

14,200 


9 

1 

6 

1 

27 

5 

31 

19 

13 

2 

3 

57 

101 

55 

4 

55 

17 

3 

135 

5 

54 

31 

40 

6 

3 

4 

5 

3 

10 


11 

2 

7 

2 
24 

4 
41 
26 
22 

5 

4 
63 
77 
63 

2 
74 
19 

2 
178 

6 
26 
38 
47 

9 

2 

""ii"" 

5 

11 


1,395 

500 

1,474 

270 

3,003 

107 

6,505 

5,000 

2,248 

1,000 

800 

11,499 

14,088 

12,084 

68 

11,635 

3,250 

36 

27,146 

825 

5,837 

6,815 

7,055 

1,375 

31 

235 

1,550 

450 

2,245 


1,006,445 
643,510 
192,730 
837,550 

6,423,689 

764,850 

17,917,494 

13,714,985 

4,128,380 

2,648,657 


104,374 
74,000 


Cayuga 

Chautauqua 

Chemung 

Chenango 

Cortland 

Erie 


82,216 

625,382 

25,075 

1,879,368 

1,406,157 

435,774 

264,865 


Essex 


Fulton 


Herkimer 

JeflFerson 

Lewis 


32,157,583 
32,618,713 
33,531,746 

""'33,037,456' 

5,747,902 


3,092,268 
3,357,546 
3,171,721 


Livingston 

Madison 

Monlgomery . .. 

Niagara 

Oneida 

Onondaga 

Orange 

Oswego , . 

Otsego 


19,900 

3,420,057 

474,622 

9 606 


70,414,328 

2,631,304 

9,962,949 

13,450,857 

15.455,437 

2,348,322 


8,107,018 
1,272,633 
724,854 
1,386,005 
1,559,591 


St. Lawrence. .. 


322,615 

10,372 

4,500 

340,260 
46,229 

446,011 






Tompkins 

Washington 

Wyoming 


3,237,512 

461,696 

4,343,153 


Total 


425 


$862,931 


705 


781 


128,526 


307,677,242 


32,663,014 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 217 

We give the preceding tahle, collected from official sources, showing the 
amount of capital invested in factory buildings, the number of hands 
employed at the factories, average number of cows delivering milk, pounds 
of milk, and pounds of cheese made during the season of 1864, at four 
hundred and twenty-five factories. The summary is made by counties. 

From the foregoing statistics it would not be practicable to deduce general 
results to show the relative products and profits of manufacturing in the 
several counties, since some of the factories were in operation only part of 
the season. A better estimate can be made from the following statistics, 
gathered from the New York State census returns, showing the operations 
of one hundred and thirty-three factories selected from the whole number, 
and working through the season of 1864. The tables were made up and 
published in the New York Tribune soon after the returns were completed, 
and for convenient reference the factories are numbered from one to one 
hundred and thirty-three, inclusive : 



218 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



Table sbowin"; tlie capital invested in buildings, persons emploj^ed in mnnufncturing, num- 
ber of cows, season of beginning and closing operations, pounds of milk and pounds 
of cbeese, at one bundred and lliirty-tbree different factories in various parts of tbe 
State of New York, for tlie year 1864: 





I 


Persons em- 


_ 




Q 


ployed 


is 












a 




O 




n 






b 
























Q ^ 






« 






































































































2 
3 
A 


< 


< 




<! 



Cattaraueus,. 
Chautauqua, . 



Chenango, 



Cortland, 



Erie, 

Essex, 

Herkimer, 



Jeflferson, . 



Lewis,. 



Madison, . 



1 


$2,500 


2 


2 


420 


2 


5,500 


3 


2 


475 


3 


5,000 


3 


2 


350 


4 


3,120 


3 


2 


508 


5 


3,500 


3 


4 


520 


(i 


2,000 


1 


2 


375 


7 


2,500 


2 


1 


350 


8 


3,000 


21<f 


3 


550 


9 


4,000 


2 


5 


500 


10 


3,000 


1 


3 


450 


11 


4,000 


1 


3 


3SU 


19, 


2,600 


2 


2 


■ 415 


13 


3,683 


1 


2 


400 


14 


2,460 


1¥ 


2M 


400 


15 


5,000 


3 


3 


700 


Ifi 


5,000 


3 


2 


(iOO 


17 


5,000 


3 


4 


800 


18 


5,937 


3 


3 


560 


19 


4,500 


2 


4 


900 


20 


2,S47 


^K 


3 


4U0 


21 


2,400 


2 


4 


5:i4 


22 


1,000 


2 


6 


851 


23 


3,500 


2 


5 


1,100 


24 


4,000 


2 


3 


460 


25 


5,000 


2 


4 


448 


2fi 


3,000 


3 


2 


400 


27 


2,500 


2 


2 


475 


2S 


4,000 


3 


2 


690 


29 


4,000 


3 


2 


600 


30 




3 


3 


450 


31 


700 


2 


3 


300 


32 


2,000 


1 


1 


300 


33 


5,000 


2 


2 


325 


34 


2,000 


1 


2 


540 


35 


2,500 


2 


2 


750 


36 


4,000 


3 


3 


625 


37 


1,500 


2 


2 


325 


38 


2,156 


2}< 


1 


425 


39 


1,500 


1 


2 


325 


40 


2,538 


3 


2 


4S0 


41 


1,000 


2 


2 


450 


42 


1,000 


1 


3 


319 


43 


4,000 


5 


5 


1,200 


44 


3,000 


3 


3 


850 


45 


3.600 


3 


4 


600 


4R 


2,196 


3 


2 


327 


47 


3,000 


2 


4 


750 


48 


2,500 


2 


3 


580 


49 


1,500 


1 


2 


400 


50 


2,500 


2 


3 


580 


51 


1,500 


1 


2 


400 


52 


2,550 


2 


3 


425 


53 


3,000 


2 


4 


700 


54 


3,500 


3 


3 


600 


55 


3,300 


2 


3 


730 


5fi 


1,000 


1 


3 


460 


57 


2,500 


3 


3 


625 


58 


1,200 


1 


3 


300 


59 


2,500 


2 


2 


540 


60 


5,000 


3 


3 


900 


61 


2,000 


2 


2 


450 


62 


3,000 


2 


3 


500 


63 


5,000 


2 


3 


850 


64 


3,000 


2 


3 


600 



May 5, 
May 10, 
May 3, 
May 2, 
Jun. 28, 
Apr. 11, 
May 2, 
Apr. 18, 
May 10, 
Apr. 14, 
April 5, 
Apr. 27, 
May 9, 
May 10, 
May 11, 
May 9, 
April 9, 
May 26, 
Apr. 10, 
Apr 19, 
May 14, 
May 8, 
Apr. 15, 
Apr 21, 
May 24, 
May 12, 
Mar. 15, 
Mar. 9, 
May 15, 
Apr. 26, 
May 19, 
]\Iay 28, 
May 27, 
Apr. 20, 
May 1, 
May 9, 
May 11, 
May 3, 
May 11, 
May 9, 
May 1, 
Apr. 22, 
May 1, 
Apr. 10, 
May 22, 
May 3, 
Apr. 14, 
May 11, 
May 10, 
May 11, 
May 10, 
May 2, 
Apr. 25, 
May 20, 
Apr. 18, 
May 5, 
May 19, 
May 3, 
May 16, 
Apr. 22, 
Apr. 25, 
Apr. 12, 
April 4. 
April 7, 



1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
18(54 
1S64 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1804 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1S64 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
18134 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 



Kov. 3, 
... .do. 
Nov. 1, 
Oct. 10, 
Oct. 15, 
Nov. 18, 
Nov. 12, 
Oct. 31, 
Nov. 3, 
Nov. 1, 
Nov. 15, 
Oct. -29, 
Nov. 1, 

do. 

Oct. 20, 
Oct. 28, 
Nov. 10, 
Oct. 31, 
Nov. 1, 
Oct. 29, 
Oct. 22, 
Dec. 10, 
Nov. 15, 
Nov. 7, 
Nov. 25, 
Dec. 1, 
Dec. 10, 
Dec. 18, 
Oct. 29, 
Oct. 31, 
Oct. 8, 
Oct. 22, 
Nov. 1, 
Oct. 1.5, 

do. 

Nov. 1, 
Oct. 31, 
Nov. 7, 
Oct. 28, 
Oct. 31, 
Nov. 1, 

do. 

Nov. 15, 

do. 

Oct. 22, 
Oct. 23, 
Oct. 27, 
Nov. 5, 
Nov. 1, 
Nov. 5, 
Nov. 1, 
Oct. 25, 
Nov. 5, 
Nov. 1, 
Nov. 2, 
Oct. 15, 
Nov. 4, 
Nov. 1, 

do. 

do. 

Nov. 5, 
Nov. 4, 
Nov. 23, 
Nov. 5, 



1864 

1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 

1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 

1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 

i864 

1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1864 



1864 
1864 
1864 



1,192,730 
1,436,192 
1,178,553 
1,408,832 

842,693 
1,403,356 
1,154,,504 
1,755,000 
1,012,692 
1,171,911 
1,172,590 
1.227,786 
1,162,252 
1.124,485 
1,481,840 
1,982.801 
2,076,340 
1,717,600 
2,067,399 
1,261,119 
1,122,844 
2,458,633 
2,648,657 
1,502.723 
1,728,169 
1,367,266 
1,760,000 
1,764,119 
1,418,351 
1,327,074 

493,866 

598,756 

747,393 
1,282,621 
1,700,000 
1,636,644 

£05,600 
1,033,485 

765,388 
1,244,428 
1,-306,144 

872,378 
3,977,720 
2,369,112 
1,376,964 

839,824 
1,902,295 
1,379,871 

994,780 
1,379,871 

994,730 
1.507,373 
3.079,262 
1,397,076 
2,024,503 
1,235,000 
1,700,653 

899,254 
1,738,4.37 
2,772,188 
1,-566,872 
1,703,670 
2,824,179 
2,046,083 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 219 

Table showing capital invested in buildings, &c. — Continued. 



1 




D ^ 


Persons em- 
ployed. 


?■ 






M 


< 






J, aj 






u 






;:■ 














o 


1 


1 


M 










H 


CouNTnts, 




g "^ 






o 


y. 


B 


3 


3 
O 












^ 





C 








s 
'A 


< 


s 




•5 


6 





7. 

p 


1 


Madison, 


65 


3,200 


2 


2 


400 


Apr. 12, 1864 


Nov. 7,1864 


1,356,000 


135,621 




66 


1,600 


2 


2 


330 


Apr. 25 


, 1864 


Oct. 25, 1864 


1,220.000 


122,105 




67 


3,000 


2 


3 


575 


Apr. 20 


, 1864 


Nov. 1, 1864 


1,200,000 


120,000 




68 


1,000 


1 


3 


450 


May 1 


1864 


Oct. 20, 1864 


705,990 


70,600 




69 


3,000 


4 


2 


575 


Apr. 22 


1864 


Oct. 28,1864 


1,880,000 


199,400 




70 


2,500 


3 


3 


650 


May 21 


1864 


Nov. 15, 1864 


2,265,543 


225,. 341 




71 


2,300 


1 


4 


400 


Apr. 18 


1864 


Nov. 4,1864 


1,175,117 


115.175 


Montgomery, 


72 


2,500 


2 


2 


325 


May 23 


1864 


do 


975,625 


93,101 




73 


3,400 


3 


2 


500 


Apr. 16 


1864 


Nov. 10, 1864 


1,47.3,619 


147,361 




74 


5,000 


2 


3 


430 


June 6 


1864 


Nov. 7,1864 


1,.308,069 


1.34,161 




75 


3,000 


2 


2 


340 


Apr. 11 


1864 


Nov. 1, 1864 


990,589 


103,640 


Oneida, 


78 

77 


2,400 
1,800 


2 
2 


2 
2 


330 
450 


May 2 

May 27 


1864 
1864 


Oct. 22,1864 
Oct. 17, 1864 


849,852 
826,282 


86,556 




86,156 




78 


1,800 


2 


2 


538 


May 1, 


1364 


Oct. 31, 1864 


1,639,910 


104,875 




79 


4,000 


3 


7 


1000 


Apr 20 


1864 


Nov. 1,1864 


3,027.943 


295,115 




80 


2,000 


2 


2 


350 


Apr. 25 


1864 


Oct. 25, 1864 


802,500 


78,000 




81 


2,000 


2 


2 


300 


May 2, 


1864 


Oct. 22, 1864 


802,359 


75.000 




82 


2,000 


2 


2 


400 


Apr 11, 


1864 


Nov. 10, 1864 


1,000,000 


100,000 




83 


1,200 


2 


3 


400 


Apr. 25 


1864 


Oct. 24, 1864 


850.000 


82,534 




84 


3,000 


2 


3 


425 


Apr. 18, 


1864 


Nov. 1, 1864 


1,399;330 


135,858 




85 


2,600 


2 


3 


650 


Apr. 11, 


1864 


Oct. .31, 1864 


1,665,621 


166,585 




86 


2,100 


2 


3 


350 


April 8, 


1864 


Oct. 29,1864 


1,028,799 


102,392 




87 


2,000 


2 


4 


600 


Apr. 14, 


1864 


Oct. 1, 1864 


1,670,000 


167,720 




88 


3,500 


2 


5 


900 


Apr. 11, 


1864 


Nov. 20, 1864 


2,227,295 


222.678 




89 


1,500 


1 


2 


350 


Apr. 18 


1864 


Nov. 15, 1864 


1,059,579 


102:350 




90 


1,000 


1 


2 


300 


May 1, 


1864 


Nov. 1,1864 


832,252 


81,123 




91 


5,000 


1 


3 


530 


May 3, 


1864 


Oct. 29, 1864 


1,419,251 


141,645 




92 


4,000 


2 


3 


525 


May 20 


1864 


Dec. 18, 1864 


1,806,917 


181,083 




93 


4,000 


2 


4 


500 


April 1 


1864 


Dec. 1, 1864 


2,020,409 


2(J4,1C1 




94 


2,500 


2 


3 


400 


April 5 


1864 


Oct. 29, 1864 


709,908 


68,431 




95 


2,000 


1 


1 


400 


Apr. 12 


1864 


Nov. 20, 1864 


915,562 


55,000 




96 


1,500 


1 


2 


350 


May 11 


1864 


Nov. 1, 1864 


1,777,500 


180,000 




97 


3,400 


2 


4 


725 


Apr. 17 


1864 


■ do 


1,883,004 


180,000 




98 


2, .500 


2 


3 


550 


May 1, 


1864 


do 


1,484.443 


184,721 




99 


3,000 


3 


3 


5.50 


April 4 


1864 


Oct. 31,1864 


1,746,784 


173,691 




100 


3,000 


3 


3 


400 


Apr. 29 


1864 


do 


1,416,750 


130,545 




101 


3,000 


2 


3^1^ 


325 


Apr. 23 


1864 


Nov. 1,1864 


745,692 


78,976 




103 


3,000 


3 


2 


675 


Apr. 18, 


1S64 


Nov. 12, 1804 


2,177,920 


208.200 




103 


2,400 


2 


2 


350 


Apr. 25 


1864 


Nov. 5, 1864 


1,114.288 


107,805 




104 


1,800 


2 


2 


4.30 


Ayril 4, 


1864 


Nov. 30, 1864 


1.3.31,048 


128,045 




105 


3,000 


2 


5 


500 


Apr. 18 


1864 


Nov. 10, 1864 


1,440,500 


144,059 




106 


1,.500 


2 


'2 


400 


Apr. 25, 


1864 


Nov. 1,1864 


1,184,591 


191.701 




107 


2,300 


2 


2 


430 


.. ..do 




Oct. 29,1864 


1,318,412 


129,604 




108 


5,000 


2 


3 


700 


Apr. 11 


'i864 


Oct. 31,1864 


1,900,000 


185,000 




109 


2,200 


2 


2 


420 


Apr. 20 


1864 


do 


1,453,352 


136,606 




110 


3,000 


2 


3 


575 


April 1 


1864 


Nov. .30, 1864 


2,051,688 


204,025 


Onondaga, 


111 
112 
113 


3,200 
2,200 
2,000 


1 

2 
2 


3 
2 
1 


400 
475 
500 


May 1 

do 

Jun. 13 


1864 
1864 


Nov. 1,1864 
Oct. 1, 1864 
Oct. 15,1864 


1,331,304 

1,400,000 

800.000 


123,734 


Oswego, 


97,700 




88,888 




114 


2,500 


2 


3 


500 


Apr. 15 


1864 


Oct. 3, 1804 


488,288 


46,476 




115 


1,000 


1 


2 


300 


Apr. 19 


1864 


Sept.29, 1864 


382,804 


35,009 




116 


2,000 


2 


2 


400 


Apr. 15 


1864 


Oct. 15,1864 


1,443,032 


142,500 




117 


2,500 


2 


1 


350 


May 25 


1864 


Nov. 15, 1864 


803,718 


84,663 




118 


3,500 


2 


4 


600 


May 12 


1864 


Oct. 29,1864 


1,714,269 


155,180 




119 


2,700 


2 


1 


375 


April 7 


1864 


Oct. 15,1864 


1,117,873 


110,365 




120 


1,600 


1 


2 


350 


Apr. 15 


1864 


Oct. 22,1864 


1,137,948 


119,784 




121 


3,500 


1 


3 


300 


May 16 


1864 


Oct. 1, 1864 


515.430 


51,543 




123 


2,000 


1 


3 


400 


May 10 


1864 


Nov. 2,1864 


1,215,185 


126,625 


Otsego, 


123 
124 


4,200 
3,000 


2 
1 


4 
2 


500 
500 


April 1 
Mar. 9 


1864 
1864 


Sept. 1,1864 
Dec. 12, 1864 


1,226,700 
1,749,974 


136,300 




172.894 




125 


3,000 


2 


2 


400 


Apr. 25 


1864 


Dec. 6, 1864 


1,446,871 


137,886 




126 


2,000 


2 


2 


500 


Apr. 19 


1864 


Oct. 29,1864 


1,140,000 


114.000 




127 


3,200 


2 


2 


280 


do 




Oct. 31, 1864 


881,539 


86,533 


St. Lawrence, 


128 


3,000 


1 


2 


375 


May 17 


'i864 


Oct. 23, 1864 


1,107,373 


109,518 


Tompkins, 


129 
130 
131 


1,200 
3,000 
3,000 


3 
2 
2 


7 
2 
3 


900 
400 
600 


May 2 
June 8 
May 31 


1864 
1864 
1864 


Nov. 3,1864 
Nov. 2, 1864 
Oct. 29, 1864 


2,871,042 

820,803 

1,243,469 


802,215 


Wyoming, 


84,142 




125,664 




132 


3,000 


2 


2 


3.50 


May 15 


1864 


Oct. 25, 1864 


990,000 


100,000 




133 


2,500 


1 


2 


505 


Apr. 25 


1864 


Nov. 12, 1864 


1,139,121 


120,205 



220 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The above statistics present the following aggregates : — Cost of buildings 
and apparatus, |378,187; persons employed (males), two hundred and fifty- 
eight; persons employed (females), three hundred and sixty-two; number 
of cows used, sixty-seven thousand and thirty-four ; pounds of milk used, one 
hundred and eighty-seven million, eight hundred and twenty-two thousand, 
eight hundred and thirty-eight; pounds of cheese made, eighteen million, 
nine hundred and forty -three thousand, four hundred and thirty-five ; average 
number of pounds of milk for one of cheese, 9.915 ; pounds of milk to a cow, 
two thousand eight hundi'ed and two ; pounds of cheese to a cow, two hun- 
dred and eighty-three ; value of cheese at twenty cents per pound, |3,788,687 ; 
average value of cheese to a cow, $56.52. 

The prices at which cheese sold in 1864 ranged from ten to thirty cents, 
and averaged about twenty cents. 

The quantity of salt used to one hundred pounds of cheese was reported 
from three hundred and seventy-seven factories. In one hundred and one of 
these the amount used was three pounds ; in eighty-seven, two and a-half 
pounds ; in fifty-one, two and three-fourths pounds ; in forty, two and seven- 
tenths pounds ; in nineteen, two and four-fifths pounds ; in nine, two pounds, 
and in six, five pounds. The least quantity used was three-tenths of a pound. 
In Limburg cheeses the quantity was much greater, ranging from fourteen to 
seventeen pounds. 

It would be proper to remark that since 1864, considerable improvement 
has been made at many of the factories, in securing a better quality and 
larger quantity of cheese from a given quantity of milk. In comparing the 
quantity made per cow, as deduced from the foregoing statistics, with that 
made in family dairies, it should be remembered that the factories are not in 
operation dui'ing the whole milking season, and therefore due allowance 
should be made on this account. These statistics are of interest, and will be 
found of great value, as comparisons can be made of the product of cows in 
different parts of the State. 

COST or MANUFACTUEIlSrG CHEESE IN FAMILIES, ETC. 

In many counties of the State, family dairying is still largely in practice, 
and in order to compare the two systems understanding! y, it will be well to 
make an estimate of the actual cost of manufacturing cheese in families, after 
the ordinary method — say from a dairy of forty cows — together with the care 
and marketing of the same. We estimate from the point when milk is in the 
vats, putting values, &c., on a gold basis : 

Original cost of cheese house, including tables, &c. , $410 00 

Vats and heater, 50 00 

Press, hoops, curd knife, &c 40 00 

$500 00 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 221 

Annual interest on original ontlaj'-, ^35 oo 

Dairymaid, say half time, lor nine moullis, including board, 60 00 

Man's time about the dairy, turning cheese, &c., say average of one hour each day 

for nine months — twenty-five days, at one dollar, , 25 00 

Annual cost of fuel and its preparation for vats and curing room,. 15 00 

Man's time boxing aud marketing cheese, including team, say two days per montli 

— eighteen days, at one dollar and a-half, 27 00 

Annual wear and tear of dairy utensils, aud keeping buildings, &c., in repair, 15 00 

$177 00 

Forty cows, averaging five hundred pounds of cheese per cow, gross 

amount, twenty thousand pounds ; cost per pound for manufacturing, nine 

mills ; thirty cows, fifteen thousand pounds, say eleven mills ; twenty cows, 

ten thousand pounds, seventeen mills. 

It will be seen then, that the cost of barely manufacturing cheese in single 
dairies will average a little more than one cent per pound ; and this sum, for 
the most part, is the actual cost in cash paid out, for we have not taken into 
account the general care and supervision necessary in the manufacture and 
curing of cheese, which cannot be entrusted to domestics, but must daily 
occupy the time and attention of the proprietor or some member of his family 
who has something beyond mere wages to stimulate to action. And here it 
may be proper to observe that one of the inconveniences which is widely felt 
among dairymen, results from the difficulty of obtaining careful and reliable 
hands for the management of the dairy. If it is desirable to make first class 
cheese, that will command in market the highest price, all the operations of 
manufacture must be performed by tried and skillful hands — hands that can 
rarely be obtained for hire, and when obtained commanding comparatively 
large wages. Now, as cheese making is an art Avhich must be learned like 
other trades, and as most of its operations are performed by females, the 
dairy farmer may be said to have, for the most part, nothing but apprentices 
in his employ; for when his dairymaid has been carefully taught the trade, 
she marries, and is at once lost to him. This scarcity of skilled cheese makers 
is severely felt throughout the whole dairy region, necessitating the farmer 
and his family, and more especially the female portions, to arduous labor ; 
taxing their strength to a degree that tells heavily on health and constitution. 
Ihe result is, that persons prematurely aged and with broken health, are 
more frequently found in a dairy region than in other farming communities, 
The introduction of improved dairy apparatus has, it is true, lessened the 
labor of cheese making, but the business still demands the same skill and 
careful oversip:ht ; the want of one or relaxation of the other, resulting not 
only in immediate loss, but exerting a damaging influence upon the reputation 
of the dairy. 

There is no desire to say one discouraging word of a business which has 
added so much to the wealth of the country, and in which those who are 
engaged generally prosper, and soon become independent in worldly goods, 
but the truth must be told, nevertheless. Wealth has its advantages, but its 



222 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

price should be kept in view, and if overtasked muscle, incessant care without 
relaxation, and, finally, disease, is to be the patrimony of wives and daughters, 
its charms, to say the least, are very much diminished. 

A point of some moment to those engaged in cheese making is high skill 
and perfection in manufacture. It is not deemed necessary to enumerate all 
the reasons why this does not generally obtain. The fact is patent that choice 
cheese is made by a comparatively small number, rather than the majority of 
dairymen. Even among those noted for producing a strictly prime article, 
the process of manufacture, as well as other work of the dairy, is at times 
hurried and neglected, and must be necessarily so from the nature of things. 
It does not pay to keep an extra force on hand to take the place of those who 
may be disabled by accident or sickness, or who from other causes are obliged 
to suspend work. Occasional periods of farm labor, too, demanding immedi- 
diate and pressing attention occur more or less frequently ; the result of 
which is imperfect cheese, which must be marketed as such and at corres- 
sponding prices. One or all of these causes have been in operation in every 
farm dairy, and must continue to occur from time to time. What the losses 
from this source may be through the year depends of course on the many and 
various circumstances that have controlling influence in each particular case. 
We have known it to be large enough, in many instances, to cover the whole 
cost of manufacturing the entire cheese of the dairy for the year. Dairymen 
are conversant with these facts, and they are points to be considered, and 
should have their proper bearing in making up our estimate of the two 
systems. 

ADVANTAGES OF THE EACTOBY SYSTEM. 

The advantages claimed for the factory system are, superior quality, 
uniformity, higher prices, saving, by buying at wholesale, such materials as 
salt, bandage, annatto, boxes, &c., and, finally, relieving the farmer and his 
family from the drudgery of the manufacture and care of cheese. It is not 
pretended that a better quality of cheese can be made at the factory than in 
families, but that it is quite as fine as the best, and therefore above the 
average of that manufactured in small parcels. We have enumerated some 
of the causes that conspire to depreciate the quality of cheese when made in 
single dairies ; these are not present in the factory system. The agent or 
superintendent makes it his business to see that all parts of the work are 
properly performed. He employs skillful workmen, and his interest and 
reputation are at stake, prompting him at all times to do his best. He knows 
that neglect or mistakes will not be tolerated, and the desire to satisfy 
persons interested, in order to secure their patronage, stimulates him to make 
every exertion to build up and sustain a reputation for " fine goods." He 
has every convenience at hand for manufacturing to advantage and making 
the business a sole employment. He is not liable to be disturbed by other 
matters which might serve to call his attention away from time to time, to 
the prejudice of the immediate work at hand. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 223 

The same rule must hold good with hhn as among those engaged in other 
professions and arts ; for he who gives his whole attention and energies in a 
certain direction is likely to become more skilled, and arrive nearer to per- 
fection in his calling, than he who is striving to do many and diverse things 
at the same time — more especially in cheese manufacture under this system, as 
a high degree of skill is expected, and jealous and interested eyes are daily 
"watching and noting every short-coming. Uniformity and fine quality are 
more likely to obtain under this system, and whatever progress can be made 
towards improvement will naturally develop itself more rapidly here than 
among persons scattered over a broad extent of country, and who are so 
occupied with a variety of work as to have little time to spend in the improve- 
ment of any one particular branch. The factories, so far as we are acquainted, 
have acquired a high reputation for fine quality and uniformity. 

At some of these establishments Ave have seen a large number of cheeses, 
making in the aggregate more than one hundred thousand pounds, so uniform 
in appearance as they lay on the tables, that the most practiced eye could 
detect scarcely any difierence in their manufacture. Such a quantity of cheese 
uniform in size and quality will command a higher price in market than that 
of single dairies, from the fact that in the latter an allowance is always made 
by the jjurchaser for unequal or imperfect cheese. We have alluded to some 
of the causes that operate to increase the price of well-made factory cheese 
over that of private dairies. Another may be added the — saving of time, 
trouble, and expense in purchasing. The whole quantity made from six 
hundred or a thousand cows can be bargained for and bought in the same 
time and at no more expense than a " twenty-cow dairy." This item amounts 
to a considerable sum in the aggregate, as exjjerts are employed by the prin- 
cipal commission houses in cities, by shij)pers and dealers, to select and 
purchase cheese, under salaries ranging from $500 to $1,000 or more per year. 
Others, again, get a certain percentage on what they buy. These sums, of 
course, come out of the produce, and hence by so much must depreciate the 
price of cheese. 

We come now to consider the most important advantage to farmers in 
this union arrangement. It is the relief from the drudgery of cheese-making 
and the constant care and attention necessary in properly curing and fitting 
the cheese for market. It would be difiicult to estimate this in dollars and 
cents, since health enters into the account more largely than is generally 
suspected. It is believed, and we speak advisedly, that the old method of 
cheese-making has done more to injure the health of women in cheese-dairy- 
ing districts than any other cause. Much of the work about the dairies ought 
to be performed by men ; but too often the manufacturing and most of the 
care of cheese are left wholly to females, overtasking their strength by hard 
and exhaustive labor, thereby laying the foundation of weakness and 
disease. 

As the same process has to be gone through with in manufacturing cheese, 



224 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

whether the quantity of milk be large or small, and as nearly the same time 
also is occupied, it will be seen that what requires the labor of a great many 
persons to do, when cheese-making is divided up in families, can be accom- 
plished with but few persons on the factory system — some five or six being 
sufficient to do all the work about an establishment manufacturing the milk 
of a thousand or more cows. 

OBJECTIONS TO THE FACTOEY SYSTEM. 

The objections ui'ged against cheese factories are, difficulty of detecting 
adulterated milk ; the carrying of milk to the factory, and liability of sour 
milk ; difference in quality of milk, arising from the manner in which cows 
are fed and managed ; the cartage of whey ; and the necessity of manufac- 
turing the early and late made cheese in the family. These are the principal 
objections urged by dairymen. As the milk is measured at the factory and 
each credited with the amount daily furnished, it is evident that, when there 
is a considerable quantity, a dishonest person could add water, and thus 
increase the number of gallons. Such cases have occurred, and the indi- 
viduals cheating have been summarily expelled from the association. We 
now have devices that will detect watered milk, and therefore a watchfulness 
on the part of the superintendent, and the exclusion from the association of 
persons of doubtful honesty, are sufficient means of meeting the difficulty. 

Some object to the labor and trouble of carrying milk to the factory, and 
the necessity of keeping regular hours for its delivery under all circum^stances 
of weather, &c., since no delay at the factory can be made for the milk of a 
single. dairy without hazarding the acidity of a large quantity — at least that 
contained in one vat — besides deranging in some degree the regular factory 
works. Others contend that, having the milk, the cheese can be made by 
the family with but little more trouble and labor than that of carting the 
milk, while one's own time and convenience can be studied at pleasure, and 
the cheese be at all times under immediate control. 

Without extra care and cleanliness as to the pails and milk cans there is 
liability of sour milk from time to time, which, of course, would not be 
received at the factory, as milk only slightly acid would damage that with 
which it came in contact. The milk cans for carrying the milk, it may be 
observed, are somewhat difficult to cleanse and to keep sweet ; and the con- 
finement of the milk and its agitation while being carried in hot weather, 
render it susceptible to change, especially if there be the least taint of acidity 
about the cans. 

Dissatisfaction often occurs at the factory with regard to the condition of 
milk, the superintendent being certain that the milk is slightly and perhaps 
perceptibly changed, while the farmer stoutly insists that it is perfectly sweet ; 
and he goes home in no pleasant mood, complaining that his cans were not per- 
fectly cleansed, laying the fault of the sour milk upon some member of his 
family, or disbelieving that the milk was changed. If the milk is not received 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 225 

at the factory there is a loss to the stockholders. Hence it will be seen that 
more or less trouble is brought about on this account. Not unfrequently bad 
feeling -is engendered on the part of the farmer and his family, and he with- 
draws from the association. 

Another objection is urged, and with some apparent reason, that the 
quality of milk varies with different persons, according to the manner in 
which the cows are supplied with food and are managed throughout the sea- 
son. It is contended that clean, sweet, upland pasture, an abundance of food, 
and plentiful supply of pure watei*, cattle wintered well and receiving careful 
treatment in every respect, will produce a better quality of milk, from which 
more and better cheese can be made, than when the reverse is practiced. 
And yet the poor herd that has been wintered iinproperly, that is pastured 
on the coarse herbage of low lands, with general bad treatment on the part 
of the owner, is credited according to the quantity furnished on an equality 
with the better herd. It is not easy to see how this can be remedied without 
excluding such from the association. 

Then there is trouble with the whey, which is regarded by some to be an 
important item in pork making, or as a feed for cows — for the whey in some 
cases is the property of the person who runs the factory, but even were it 
given the farmers, there is the trouble and exiaense of carting it home. An 
objection is also urged against the system, that in fall and spring, when the 
cows are " coming in " or being dried off, the quantity of milk is too small 
to be carried with profit to the factory ; that the family butter is to be made ; 
that it pays better to take off the cream for butter and turn the skimmed 
milk into cheese ; and that, therefore, as the factory does not do away wholly 
with cheese making in families, cheese apparatus and implements are neces- 
sary ; and if the spring and fall cheese are to be made at home, the other 
portion of the dairy may as well be made there also. This objection could 
be partly met be setting the milk and taking off a part of the cream and 
delivering the milk every other day, or at longer intervals. We have now 
presented both sides of the question, and are j)repared to advance another 
step in the discussion, which brings us to 

THE OBGANIZATION, SELECTION OP FACTORY SITES, ETC. 

Cheese factory associations are organized in neighborhoods of ten or a 
dozen or more farmers. When it is proposed to start a factory, if enough 
are found willing to turn in their dairies, so as to make a fair start, say three 
hundred cows, a committee is appointed to look further into the matter, to 
visit factories, and get all the information on the subject that can be had. 
The favorable i-eport of the committee being had, they then organize, choose 
directors, and adopt some general rules or plan for the guidance of the 
association. The next st6p will be the selection of some experienced cheese- 
maker as superintendent, and the plan for the erection of the factory building. 
Sometimes a person proposes to put up the building on his own account, 
15 



226 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

and to manufacture and take care of the cheese at a fixed price per pound, 
demanding a contract on the part of the farmers to fm-nish the milk of the 
requisite number of cows for a certain number of years. The milk of about 
three hundred cows, it is believed, is the smallest quantity that can be 
employed by the manufacturer (when cheese making is his sole business) to 
obtain a fair living compensation for services, while the milk from a thousand 
cows can be manufactured at but little extra expense, comparatively. 

FACTORY SITE. 

In choosing the place for the erection of the factory buildings two requi- 
sites are sought after — good water and convenience of access and distance for 
the dairies furnishing the milk. The site, above all, should command an 
abundance of pure spring water. This is regarded by those who have had 
longest experience at the business as imperative. Even in family cheese 
making a considerable quantity of water is needed in various ways about 
the dairy, for cooling milk, cooking the curd, and keeping the buildings clean 
and sweet ; but, for the factory, the quantity of water should be abundant 
and unfailing. In the old factories it was usual to have a considerable stream 
of water passing under the manufacturing room, so as to carry off the drip- 
pings of whey and refuse slop, so that there be no accumulation of filth or 
taint of acidity hanging about the premises. At the modern factories this is 
obviated. When whey and slop are allowed to collect from day to day about 
the milk room, the stench at times becomes intolerable and must do great 
damage to the milk, which absorbs taints of every character with great readi- 
ness. Hence means must be taken to have all the refuse matter swept far 
beyond the premises. Some factories are being built where dependence for 
water is placed upon wells of large capacity. At all events it will be seen 
that much more labor will be required, with greater liability to taints, when 
water is deficient or too warm in temperature. 

THE EARLY CHEESE FACTORIES. 

The buildings consisted of a manufactory or place for making the curd, a 
pi-ess room, dry house or curing rooms, and an ice house. The dry house was 
thought best to be a separate building, so as not to be affected by dampness, 
and in case of fire, that the cheese could be more readily removed. At one 
of the early establishments near Rome, Oneida Co., and where the milk of 
six hundred cows was used, the sizes of the buildings were as follows : Manu- 
factory, twenty-six by twenty-six feet — story and a-half ; press room, thirty- 
nine by thirteen feet ; dry house, twenty-six by one hundred feet — two stories 
high. Cost of the buildings, with fixtm-es, about $2,500. These buildings 
consisted in nothing but frames, shingled and covered with nothing but rough 
siding, and even not lathed and plastered. The curing house, where it is not 
proposed to lath and plaster, should be sided with matched floor plank and 
provided with ventilators at the sides and top. In 1863 Mr. Frazie built a 
factory at Truxton, Cortland Co., N. Y. Mr. Frazie had formerly conducted 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



22: 



a factory near Rome, N. Y., and had there made considerable improvement 
over the original or early built factories. The buildings at Truxton were a 
great improvement over the Rome establishment. The ground plan of these 
buildings is here represented in the following cut: 




GROUND PLAN OP TBUXTON FACTORY. 



1 1, Vats ; 2, Sink on rails ; 3, Truck for Sink ; 4, Presses ; 5, Engine and Boiler ; 6, Eanges in the 
Curing Room ; a, Platform and Delivery Windows. 

The factory has capacity for manufacturing the milk of fifteen hundred 
cows. The manufacturing room is thirty-two by forty feet, and contains 
seven vats fifteen feet long by three and a-half feet wide, of six hundred gallons 
capacity each. There are two places at which the milk can be delivered, so 
as to keep the wagons waiting the least possible time. Adjoining the work 
room is the press room, fifty by sixteen feet ; there are ten presses on each 
side. The sink containing the curd stands on rails, so as to be run into the 
press room opposite the presses. There is a space of four feet behind the 
sink, so the hands can work the curd and not interfere with those who are 
dipping it out. The engine of eight-horse power stands in a separate build- 
ing. There is a (horizontal) main steam pipe, six feet from the floor, to which 
are attached six steam pipes connecting with vats. The hands can in this 
manner go round each end of the vats. 

The buildings are on a level, so the cheese can be run from the press room 
on trucks into the curing house, between the counters ; no carrying by hand 
of the cheese as at the original factories. The back side of work room is 
built of masonry, and the water, fifty feet fall, brought into a large reservoir 
directly under the platform upon which stand the receiving cans.. Under the 
work room is laid flagging, over which flows a stream of water to keep it free 
from any matter that might collect there if the soil under the building was 
soft. The whey vats are a long distance from the building, so that the milk 
may not absorb any impurities from the atmosphere. Hog pens are dispensed 
with entirely, for Mr. Frazie was of the opinion that if cheese is properly 
made, there is not enough nourishment left in the whey to make it profitable 
for pork-raising. 

The accompanying cut shows the ground plan and buildings of the factory 
near Herkimer, Herkimer Co. The cut shows the bank or mound supposed 
to be necessary with the early factories, where the teams deliver the milk. 
This is now obviated by the use of a crane. The floor of the manufacturing 
room should incline a little towards the center, so that in cleaning the slops 
may be discharged into the creek. 



228 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



THE HEKKIMER FACTORY 

had facilities for manufacturing annually three hundred thousand pounds oM 
cheese. The manufacturing room is twenty-eight by forty-eight feet and the 
curing house twenty-eight by one hundred feet, and two stories high. There 
are four tin cheese vats, placed inside an equal number of wooden vats, the 
milk heated by steam; each vat holds four hundred gallons. 

COST or MANUFACTURE AT THE 
FACTORY. 

The cost of manufacturing cheese is, 
to the farmer, one cent per pound, ren- 
net, salt, bandage, annatto and boxes, as 
well as carting the cheese to market, 
being charged to the association and 



^^^y^ paid by each dairyman in proportion to 
Ekd Elevatiox MANuPACTimiNa DepTt Heeki- ^^® quantity of milk furnished during 




HER Factory, Showing Old Sttlb 
Delivert Window. 



the season. The whey, as has been be- 
fore observed, usually is a perquisite of 
the factory. All other expenses, including the care of the cheese while 
puring, &c., is paid by the manufacturer. To run a factory using the milk 
of six hundred cows will give constant employment to at least four persons, 
half or more of whom may be females. Before the war, when prices had 
not become inflated, the actual cost of manufacturing the milk from six hun- 
dred cows was about eight hundred dollars for the season. This sum does 




Front Elevation oi" Hbrkuiek Factory. 

not cover interest on capital invested for buildings and fixtures, but was the 
amount paid for labor, board, fuel, &c. From these data it will be easily 
estimated what amount of money can be realized from the business of manu- 
facturing. Allowing that the six hundred cows produce, on an average, four 
hundred pounds of cheese each, there will be in the aggregate two hundred 
and forty thousand pounds. The cost of a well-constructed factoiy will not 
be far fi-om three thousand dollars. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



229 



We have then two hundred and forty thousand pounds, at one cent, $3,400 

Cost of running factory, say |800 

Interest on buildings, &c., 210 

Annual wear and tear, or depreciation of propertj"^, 200 

$1,210 

Profits, $1^190 

N"ow, for three hundred cows, nearly the same expense would be incurred, 
and the factory account would stand thus : 

One hundred and twentj- thousand pounds of cheese, at one cent, $1,200 

Expense of running factory, say |700 

Interest on capital invested, 210 

Annual depreciation of property, 200 

$1,110 



Profits,. 



We do not pretend to give the exact figures in the above estimate, but it 
will be seen that a factory manufacturing the milk of a less number than 
three hundred cows will not be a very paying business, unless the manufac- 
turer can have most of the work performed by members of his own family. 




Ground Plan of Herkimer Factort. 
1, Vats ; 2, Sink on Rails ; 4, Track ; 3, Presses; 5, Engine and Boiler; 6, 
Engine room ; 7, Ranges in Curing room. 

DELIVERI-STG THE MILK. 

When a factory is located in a neighborhood where all 
or nearly all the dairymen are on one street, some one of 
the number may be employed to gather up the milk of 
the several dairies, and deliver it at the factory. Neigh- 
bors living near each other may take turns, each delivering 
one day out of the week. When men are hired to gather 
up and deliver the milk for a neighborhood during the season, the price paid 
for such delivery is one dollar per cow. 

TREATMENT OF THE EVENING MILK. 

In cheese manufacture an important point to be considered is the proper 
management of the evening milk, and to do this to the best advantage the 
state of the atmosphere must be observed at the time the milk is placed in 
the vats. The milk room should be cool, airy, and free from impurities. In 
hot and sultry weather much care must be given to have the evening's milk 
well exposed to the atmosphere, and thoroughly cooled down before it is left 




jl 



230 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

at rest for the night. When there are large quantities of milk to be attended 
to in hot weather it will be better to spread it thinly over a considerable 
surface, rather than deeply, as in filling the vats the temperature of the even- 
ing's milk should be so -reduced that it will stand in the morning at about 
sixty-two or sixty-three dcigrees, and it should be reduced to at least sixty-two 
degrees before leaving it for the night. At the factories, where carrying the 
milk and mingling it together from several dairies has a tendency to hasten 
its acidity, there is more necessity for care and attention than in families ; or, 
rather, there is more danger of souring. 

It may be proper to observe that the requisite degree of acidity in milk 
to the time of setting it with the rennet for a cheese is imperfectly under- 
stood by the generality of cheese makers, and must be learned by well and 
carefully-coriducted experiments. It is not possible to make so good-a quality 
of cheese from milk recently drawn from the cow, or from any milk that has 
been kept too sweet, as from milk that has acquired proximate acidity — that 
is, after the ordinary method of cheese manufacture. Neither will it be 
possible to obtain the greatest quantity of curd from the milk so manufac- 
tured. Such milk will require a treatment of sour whey, which will be 
considered under its appropriate head, further on. 

At the factories, it is believed there is more danger from too much acidity 
than otherwise, since there are many causes to hasten that condition of the 
milk which are not present in family dairies. In the factories it is usual to 
cool the evening's milk to about sixty degrees, by letting in water between 
the vats, by the use of ice, and by lifting and stirring the milk with an agita- 
tor which is moved by the waste water from the vats. This, under all circum- 
stances is, or should be, attended to. The lifting or stirring of the milk and 
exposing it to the atmosphere, not only serves to cool it down to the desired 
temperature, but also operates favorably on the condition of the milk for the 
production of fine cheese, since the stirring and lifting process allows the 
animal odor and impurities to pass ojS" more readily. If a considerable quan- 
tity of milk directly from the cow be placed in the A'at and cooled down 
without proper exposure to the atmosphere it retains more or less of this 
taint, and more especially if the cream soon rises to the surface, foi'ming a 
barrier to escape and holding it in the milk. We urge, then, that the lifting, 
stirring, and moving of the milk, so as to come freely in contact with the 
atmosphere, is of material benefit. 

Some idea may be had of the efiect of this animal odor by placing milk 
recently drawn in a vessel where it is closely confined and excluded from the 
air. In a few hours it becomes fetid and putrid. In family dairies too little 
attention is given to this point in the treatment of milk. 

PROXIMATE ACIDITY OF MILK FOR FINE CHEESE. 

The requisite acidity in milk for producing the best results in cheese man- 
ufacture has not been fully treated by American writers on the dairy, and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 231 

is very imperfectly understood by most dairymen who make up their milk at 
the farm. 

Experienced cheese makers have obsei'ved the fact that milk which has 
been cooled down to a low temperature and kept very sweet, requires more 
rennet to form the curd, and when coagulated is longer in cooking, and often 
will not work down firm, but will be soft and spongy, forming what is termed 
a " honeycomb cheese." Many times a superabundance of whey is retained 
and cannot be pressed out ; this soon becomes sour and putrid ; the cheese 
does not cure evenly, but goes on depreciating in quality until it reaches a 
high state of decomposition, giving off an offensive odor, and not unfrequently 
requiring an immediate removal from the shelves to the pig-pen. When 
cheeses swell and puff up, the whey oozes out, carrying a portion of the 
butyraceous matter, changed to oil, and are saved with difficulty, and when 
saved, cannot be marketed at half the ordinary price of good cheese. 

The principal features of this character of cheese are given, that it may 
be identified, and because large quantities are annually made, during spring 
and fall, many farm dairymen not knowing where the trouble lies or how to 
obviate the difficulty. Now, this results from manufacturing from milk that 
is too sweety and which should have been treated with sour whey. The use 
of sour whey in cheese manufacture, when the temperature of the evening's 
milk has been kept low, we deem of imperative necessity, if uniform cheese of 
firm quality be desired. It may be observed that milk should never have 
acquired sensible acidity at the time for setting with rennet, but should never- 
theless be well on its way to that point. By sensible acidity, we mean acidity 
that can be detected by the taste or smell. Some milk is more acid than 
other soon after being drawn from the cow, and often, when freshly drawn^ 
will redden litmus paper, yet to the taste is perfectly sweet. The milk from 
cows fed with whey or slop, is more acid than that from those which get 
nothing but grass on sweet upland pastures. But if by chance or accident 
the milk is sensibly changed when about to be made into cheese, it should 
be set at a low temperature, and all the subsequent operations hastened as 
far as practicable. 

APPLICATION OF SOUK WHET AT FARM DAIRIES. 

"When the evening's milk stands in the morning at or below sixty-two 
degrees, the morning's milk may be added to it, and at the time of putting 
in the rennet a quantity of sour whey may be added, and stirred into the 
mass, in the proportion of two quarts whey for sixty or seventy gallons of 
milk. If the night's milk stands below sixty degrees a large quantity of whey 
may be used, and the quantity of whey always graduated according to the 
degree of the sweetness of the milk. If the evening's milk stand at or above 
sixty-five degrees in the morning, no sour whey need be used, as the milk is 
on its way towards a change, or has acquired a sufficient acidity to render 
the use of the whey not only unnecessary, but a damage, from excess of acid. 



232 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

When milk has not been treated with sour whey at the time of adding the 
rennet, and there is a difficulty in cooking the curd, it will be better to add 
to the mass while cooking a sufficient quantity of sour whey to harden up tlie 
curd ; but it is always better, when practicable, to use the whey at the time 
of setting the cheese, as by that means the coagulation is rendered more per- 
fect, while more of the butyraceous matter is retained, and the cheese is 
consequently richer and of finer texture and flavor. 

When acid is used in this way to assist tlie rennet in its work of coagula- 
tion, it passes off in the whey, and in pressing, and in the cheese room, leaving 
the cheese sweet, mild, firm, rich, and of the finest texture. It has none of 
the characteristics of cheese made from milk sensibly sour ; as in that case, it 
will be hard and retain an acid taste. 

In hot weather there will be no occasion to use the whey, unless the milk 
is cooled down with running water to a low temperature and so held through 
the night. We may remark here that it is presumed that the milk room, 
dairy utensils, &c., are kept sweet and clean ; for if otherwise, it will be use- 
less to attempt uniformity of manufacture — for no degree of skill in manu- 
facture can counteract all the damage done when the milk is constantly 
absorbing sour or putrid emanations, or where taints are received from unclean 
dairy utensils. 

The whey should be distinctly acid, about like that coming from a sweet 
curd in summer weather and standing thirty-six hours. If the weather be 
cool the whey must be ke2:)t in a warm atmosphere to acquire the requisite 
acidity. 

Milk treated as above with sour whey will produce curd that will be all 
that can be desired, which will work down evenly and without trouble, the 
cheese curing with a firm, compact texture, retaining more of the butyra- 
ceous matter, and having that mild, rich, pleasant flavor peculiar to first-class 
cheese. Attention to this matter, and a little experience and observation in 
the use of the whey, will, we are convinced, Avork a marked improvement in 
the quality of spring and fall cheese, while at the same time it will add in quan- 
tity, and save that which would otherwise go off in the whey and be lost. 

SIZE OF CHEESE. 

In starting a manufactoiy some little anxiety will be had in regard to the 
most suitable size of the cheese to be made. This doubtless must be con- 
trolled from time to time by the market for which the cheese is manufactured. 
The southern home trade prefers a medium-size, flat cheese — say from thirty 
to forty pounds, and pressed in fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen-inch hoops. This 
style of cheese should be about five inches thick. For shipping to Europe 
there seems to be a growing demand for cheese of moderate size. The 
Cheddar is now very much in favor for exportation — a cheese fifteen and 
a-half inches in diameter and twelve and a-half inches high, and when made 
smaller, in like proportions. In former years cheeses weighing from one 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 233 

hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty pounds were in favor among the 
American dairies, but this size is now considered too large for the foi-eign 
trade, and a size not beyond fifty or sixty pounds in weight is more salable. 
Small cheeses are easily handled, and in case of accident either at the factory 
or in carrying to market, the loss is not so great as in the larger cheeses. 
Some of the factories for several years past have been making a limited 
number of immense cheeses, weighing seven hundred and more pounds each, 
and the sales of such have been in advance of the small size ; but for exten- 
sive sales, the market generally would regard them as objectionable. Ready 
sales of small lots of these large cheeses are doubtless made at an extra price, 
because being rare, they excite more or less cui'iosity and induce purchases at 
the shop where they are cut and sold. But such cheeses are of no better 
quality than the smaller size ; they are more liable to be broken ; are too 
large for families that are in the habit of purchasing a cheese from time to 
time, and therefore can never become popular for the general trade. We 
shall have more to say on this topic in another place. 

COST OF PRODUCING MILK IN OLD DISTRICTS. 

The question of the cost of producing milk should be determined on every 
dairy farm. The estimates should be carefully made and compared with the 
sales, and it Avill then be seen whether the business is profitable or not. We 
have entered upon an extraordinary phase in the history of American taxa- 
tion, and our necessary annual expenditures must for years to come be greatly 
above those of the past. They must be met manfully, and ways devised for 
providing for these extra calls upon our earnings and profits. They cannot 
be met by poor herds and a shiftless and improvident mode of farming. * 

The average annual yield of the cows must be brought up to six hundred 
or more pounds of cheese per head. We must learn the means of keepino" 
more stock on a less number of acres, and at the same time supplying the 
herds with a greater abundance of food at a less amount of labor in obtain- 
ing it. 

It has been remarked by Liebig that cows driven long distances to pasture, 
unless they get an extra supply of food, yield milk poor in caseine or cheesy 
matter ; the materials which would otherwise have formed that constituent 
of the milk being used in repairing the waste of muscles and other parts 
employed in locomotion. This fact is lost sight of by many farmers. Herds 
that are compelled to travel long distances for water, or which are occupied 
a considerable portion of the day in getting a supply of food, yield less milk, 
and of a poorer quality, than when they can fill themselves quickly and lie 
down to rest and manufacture their food into milk. In administering food to 
milch cows the first consideration should be the maintenance of a healthy, 
robust condition. That secured, the increase and improvement of their milk 
may be realized by paying due attention to securing quiet among the herds, 
and supplying the requisite food from which good milk may be produced. 



234 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

old districts unfavoeablt affected a foreign market now 

DEMANDED. 

But it is claimed that there is one feature with regard to cheese associa- 
tions that operates injuriously on the interests of old dairy districts. Cheese 
dairying is no longer a privileged business, narrowed down to a few places, 
where high skill in manufacturing has built up an enviable reputation. It is 
opened up to many localities. What has been acquired by long years of 
patient toil, by science and experience, is at once opened to whole communi- 
ties, where the art of manufacture is unknown. They pick off the best 
cheese makers, they erect factories, and meet in the market on an equality. 
So long as dairying was conducted on the old system, this could only be done 
so slowly and gradually as not to influence the trade for years. Doubtless in 
this respect the factories act unfavorably on those who would prefer to see 
dairying confined within narrow limits, and the fears that the business may 
be overdone are not altogether groundless. But the step has been taken, and 
it is too late now to look back. It remains for us to make a market suffi- 
ciently large to take all our produce. In what manner this can be done is 
obvious. The quality of American cheese must be improved, so that it will 
be sought after in all the markets of Europe. There is no reason why Amer- 
ican factory cheese may not become as noted in its line as the wines of 
Johannisberg, the porcelain of Sevres, the sword blades of Damascus, or the 
shawls of Cashmere. We can compete with the dairymen of the old world 
as to prices, and if we are able to outdo them in quality, a market for our 
" goods " is secured for all coming time. 

The business of cheese dairying is now assuming lai'ge proportions, and 
will increase rapidly under the stimulus of rapid sales, high prices, and the 
facilities offered for manufacture under the factory system. Plow far this 
influx of business is to influence prices remains to be seen. Without a 
market in Europe, at least for the present, the supply, it is evident, will be so 
great as to glut the home trade and render cheese dairying unprofitable. It 
is true, nature seems to have hedged the dairy Avithin certain limits. 

The immense plains of the West and the South, as well as large portions 
of the Middle States, are not adapted to dairying. The lands are deficient in 
springs and streams of living water ; the soil is of such a character that 
grasses soon run out, and pastures become brown and dried, or afford scanty 
herbage long before midsummer. 

These lands are better adapted to wheat and corn, or the production of 
beef, or mutton and wool, and hence will not naturally be employed for the 
dairy. But still there are large tracts of lands suitable for milch cows, and 
should they be generally devoted to the dairy, we may possibly find the annual 
supply of cheese so great as to sensibly affect prices. There is no question 
of more importance, none of more vital interest to the dairyman, than this 
matter of market — a mai'ket that is enduring and remunerative. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 235 



PERMANENCY OF THE SYSTEM. 



The questions have been frequently asked : Is the factory system destined 
to stand the test of years ? Is it to continue to prosper, or will it soon break 
up and dairymen return again to the old order of cheese-making ? In my 
opinion it is to live. The system is a progressive step, and all history teaches 
that when that is taken it is difficult to retrace it. 

Doubtless some may remember when the wool and the flax grown on the 
farm were spun and woven by the family. We shall never return to that 
again, because we cannot afford it. They can be more cheaply manufactured 
by associated capital, substituting the untiring arm of the machine for one of 
living muscle. The flesh and blood of our wives and daughters ai-e of too 
much consequence to be worn out by this ceaseless toil, when the spindles and 
looms driven by steam or water power can relieve them of the burden at a 
fraction of what it costs in home manufacture. Why, then, should a neigh- 
borhood of dairymen do the work of cheese-making in families, employing 
many hands, when it can be performed equally well by half-a-dozen persons in 
a well-constituted factory ? 

Progress is a law of nature. From the earliest dawn of creation there 
has been a constant series of developing improvements. Geology reveals 
that the lower orders of sensitive beings gave way to those of higher grade, 
until the last result of physical creation was attained in the creation of man, 
whose improvement, as a rational creature and an immortal soul, is still 
destined to be onward and upward. 

The inauguration of associated dairies is rapidly producing a revolution 
in old customs and heretofore fixed ideas. It teaches the important lesson 
that farmers can adopt successfully the same means that have proved so bene- 
ficial to the merchant, the banker, and the commercial man of the world. 
By a consolidation of interests, the dairymen of to-day can wield a power 
and influence never before reached. The vast capital in lands and herds is 
of a substantial and permanent character, while the aggregate product of 
the farms, annually amounting in value to millions of dollars, compels respect 
from those who would assume that the proper province of the farmer was 
merely to till the soil, leaving for others to divide the profits realized in 
marketing his productions. 

It has been suggested that an arrangement could be made by which lead- 
ing European houses would take choice factory brands direct from the pro- 
ducer, and advance, through an agent in New York, the stipulated price. 
Whether more could be realized in this way than by the present system, under 
which the countiy buyer gets one commission, the house in New York 
another, and the shipper another, is a matter that needs mvestigation. 

But the dairyman with his herd of fifty or one hundred cows, standing 
alone, has a circle of influence whose radius extends but little beyond his 
farm. He is, in a measure, at the mercy of corporations and speculators, 



236 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

who, by operating together, may fix prices and control the trade. When 
associated with others in neighborhoods, in towns, in counties, and in the 
State, he becomes formidable, and meets on equal terms the community of 
dealers with whom he is operating. 

THE OEANGE COUNTY, K. T., BUTTER FACTORIES. 

Another feature springing out of the system of associated dairies, and of 
national importance, is the production of butter at factories in connexion with 
the manufacture of cheese. Its importance will be more readily seen when it 
is known that the finest quality of butter can be produced under this system, 
thus avoiding immense losses resulting from a poor article, as manufactured 
in private families, together with the saving efiected by turning the skimmed 
milk into cheese. It takes more skill and science to make cheese than butter. 
Cheese-making is a chemical process ; butter making is mechanical. 

The cheese-makers are, as a class, inferior butter-makers. Some have 
attempted to account for the poor butter in cheese-producing counties, on the 
ground that no limestone region can produce a prime article. They assert 
that soft water is indispensable in butter manufacture. 

There are many errors afloat in the world— errors so old and so well 
established that they are difiicult to be overthrown. I do not propose to 
argue the point, or to waste breath upon fine-spun theories. Facts are 
opposing forces of more power than words, and, with due respect to the 
opinions of others, it is believed that as nice butter can be made in the hard 
water districts as in the far-famed butter regions. But the cows must be 
good, fed upon old, sweet, rich upland pasture, with abundance of pure water, 
the milk and manufacture perfect. Cows fed on leeks and onions will not 
make good butter, even if it be Avashed in the softest water. 

BUTTER IN HARD WATER DISTRICTS. 

There are butter-makers, even in the hard water districts of Oneida 
county, New York, who pack in Orange county pails, who manufacture 
specially for consumers in New York and Philadelphia, and whose butter is 
pronounced by competent judges equal to the best brought into those markets. 
I have seen as good butter made upon the black slate hills of Herkimer 
county. New York, as any in the soft water regions— butter that would keep 
at least nine months, as sweet as a nut and as nice as could be desired. These 
are facts.^ I have no theories to advocate, and no feeling in the matter further 
than stating the truth. 

The cheese-makers have no conveniences for making butter ; they have 
no order nor system in managing the milk. Their milk is often set in a 
tamted atmosphere, in cheese vats, or mixed up with cheese utensils, and the 
butter therefrom has an unpleasant, and often a cheesy flavor. They do not 
mtrust the butter making to careful manufacturers, but set their raw hands 
to the work, pack it any kind of a tub that 'will carry it to market, and get 
the best price for it they can. A great deal of this butter soon becomes 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 23*7 

rancid, and is a miserable grease, unfit for anybody to eat. It is sold at com- 
paratively low prices, and hundreds of thousands of dollars are thus annually 
thrown away. It is hard to remedy the evil on the old system of private 
dairies, since the farmers tell you it wont pay to build a spring i-oom and hire 
a skillful butter-maker for a few tubs of butter, spring and fall; and even 
should he go to extra expense and care, it is not certain that the butter Avould 
sell any higher. The wife and daughters have more labor than they can 
attend to, without slaving over the butter-making, and so a good deal of poor 
butter goes to market. 

The associated dairies have the means of remedying this defect, in the 
establishment of butter factories in connection with cheese manufacture. 
Butter making at factories is of recent origin. It was inaugurated in Orange 
county, New York, about ten yeai's ago (1861), and, in connection with the 
manufacture of skim-milk cheese, has proved a success. A number of factories 
have been put in operation in that county, and the system has been adopted 
to some extent throughout the whole dairy region. 

If the system is managed judiciously, it will prove a source of profit to 
the producer and a great blessing to consumers. There is danger, however, 
that too many in the cheese producing counties may rush thoughtlessly 
into the manufacture of skim cheese, and thus, by over-production of both 
butter and a poor character of cheese, make the whole thing a failure — that 
is, render it unprofitable. How far markets may be opened for the disposal 
of skim cheese remains to be seen ; but it is evident that the great bulk of 
American cheese must be made of whole milk, or at least of milk that has 
been but lightly skimmed. 

Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the best samples of English and American 
cheese shows that ours is about two and a-half per cent, richer in butter than 
the English samples, the latter containing more moisture. Whether, there- 
fore, we may be able to remove a portion of the cream and yet manufacture 
a nice, palatable cheese, equal to the best English cheddar, is for future 
experiments and skill in cheese making to determine. 

It is believed that as we progress in the science, great improvements will 
be made in this direction, and a superior quality of cheese be made from milk 
not particularly rich in butter ; but until the facts are fully established, and 
the processes of manufacture generally understood, there is danger of an 
excess of butter factories depreciating the standard of American cheese, by 
throwing upon the market a surplus of the poorer grades. Though in favor 
of butter factories, and fully in the belief that the public necessities demand 
them, in limited numbers, and that the system is an advanced step in dairy 
progress, there is necessity for caution, that we may not overdo the work and 
get " too much of a good thing " at once. This danger of an excess of butter 
and skim cheese factories will be more apparent when the comparative profits 
of the two systems, at present prices, are taken into account. 



238 Practical Dairy Husbaiwry. 



MILK TO A POUND OF BUTTEE. 



In November, 1865, when in Orange county, I was told by Mr. Allison, 
superintendent at one of the factories, who had kept a record of work, that 
the average product during the season, up to October, from fourteen quarts 
of milk, wine measure, was one pound of butter and two of skim cheese. 
The cheese factories do not produce more than three pounds of cheese from 
the same quantity of milk. Now the average sale of factory cheese in 1805 
was only a little over fifteen cents — call it sixteen cents— and we have forty- 
eight cents as the value of the milk by that system. But by the other system 
the average prices at which butter was sold in the fall would nearly cover 
that amount, leaving the two pounds of skim cheese as clear gain. These are 
the facts which serve as a basis for estimating the relative profits of the two 
systems. We may assume that a given quantity of milk will yield ^n equal 
weight of product by either system, but in one a third of the weight is in 
butter. To be exact, I suppose that by the Orange county system the milk 
is worked up more perfectly, or with less waste, and hence there is really a 
larger product by that system ; but as some cheese makers claim to be able 
to work milk without much waste, the excess need not be named here. The 
cost of manufacturing butter and cheese combined, is slightly in advance of 
manufacturing cheese alone, but the difierence is not so great as to be of 
much account. 

It will be seen, then, that the success of butter and cheese factories will 
depend upon the price by which butter is to rule in the market above that of 
cheese, and the facility in disposing of skim cheese. The Orange county 
factories have sometimes sold their butter at seventy cents, and their skim 
cheese at prices slightly in advance of whole milk cheese from the best factor- 
ies of Herkimer and Oneida. But such a condition of things may not occur 
again, and it would not be fair or safe to make these figures a basis for future 
operations. 

The dairy region has been trying to make a finely flavored, high priced 
cheese, such as will sell in the markets of Great Britain along with improved 
English Cheddar, at eighty-four to one hundred and twelve shillings per 
hundred— that is, from twenty to twenty-five cents in gold. Some of our 
factories, during the last two years, have come up to the required standard, 
and American cheese now stands equal to any manufactured in the world. 
If we can prove to our English customers that we are able to supply them 
with the best cheese, they will take of us from fifty to one hundred millions 
of pounds annually, and pay us well for it. But we must not get back on a 
poor grade, and lose the reputation we have labored so hard to obtain. These 
points should enter properly into the consideration of this subject, with those 
contemplating a change to butter and skim cheese manufacture. 

The advantages of butter making on the associated dairy system over that 
of private families are very great. In the first place, a uniform product of 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 239 

superior character is secured. Every appliance that science or skill, or close 
attention to business is able to obtain, is brought to bear upon the manufac- 
ture, and prime quality necessarily follows as a result. If you could assume 
that, in a neighborhood of one hundred families, each was possessed of the 
skill and conveniences of the factories, and that each would give the subject 
the same close attention, there doubtless would be no difference as to quality 
of product ; but such a state of things rarely exists. 

Again, the factories are able to obtain a larger price, because it costs the 
dealer no more to purchase of the one hundred dairies combined, than it 
would of an individual dairy, and the uniformity and the reliability of the 
product does not entail the losses that ai'e constantly accruing in different 
lots on account of inferior quality. The factories, too, relieve the farmer and 
his family from a great deal of drudgery, and unless the work is to be done 
by members of the family who cannot be employed profitably at other labor, 
it is a matter of economy to have the butter or cheese made at the factory ; 
since what would employ a hundred hands scattered over the country, is 
performed in the same time by three or four when the milk is worked up 
together at one place. 

The only serious complaint against the factory system is in hauling the 
milk. This has been obviated, in many instances, by establishing a route of 
milk teams, where the milk is delivered for the season by the payment of a 
small sum. The associated system, applied to buttei'-making, has all the 
advantages, and will do as much for the improvement of butter as it has for 
cheese ; and no one at this day will deny that in the latter it has brought 
about a wonderful improvement. The butter-making departments can be 
easily applied to cheese factories. There need be scarcely any alteration in 
the buildings. A spring room, churn room, and Tautter cellar must be added, 
but these need be but small and cheap structures. The spring room is to be 
provided with vats or tanks for holding the water. They should be sunk in 
the earth in order to secure a lower and more even temperature of the water, 
as well as for convenience in handling the milk. The vats may be about six 
feet wide, and from twelve to twenty-four feet long, arranged for a depth of 
eighteen inches of water. There should be a constant flow of water in and 
out of the vats, so as to secure a uniform temperature of the milk after it has 
been divested of its animal heat. The milk is set in tin pails, eight inches in 
diameter by twenty inches long, each holding about fifteen quarts of milk. As 
fast as the milk is delivered, the pails are filled to the depth of seventeen 
inches and plunged into the water, care being taken that the water comes up 
even with or a little above the milk in the pails. The temperature of the 
water should be from forty-eight to fifty-six degrees. ^ 

The old notion that cream cannot rise through a depth of milk greater 
than seven inches, it is believed, is an error.* The Orange county farmers 
say they can get as much cream by setting in pails on the above plan, as they 
can to set the milk shallower in pans, and the cream is of better quality, 



240 Practical Dairy Husbanbrt. 

because a small surface being exposed to tlie air, there is not that liability for 
the top of the cream to get dry, which has a tendency to fleck the butter and 
injure its quality. Desiring to test this matter, I took glass cream jars, on 
which were graduated scales, and set milk of the same quality at different 
depths, from two to eighteen inches. The depth of the cream was always in 
proportion to the quantity of the milk. 

When the butter department is to be added to cheese factories already 
built, about a third of the cost will be in j)ails, two of which are required for 
every cow from which milk is delivered. To build a butter and cheese fac- 
tory combined, of a capacity for four hundred cows, fitted up with the 
necessary machinery complete, the cost is estimated at ten dollars per cow. 
It will hardly pay to build and run a factory for less than three hundred cows, 
and it is not desirable to have the number of cows above a thousand. 

In the working of any new system, practical men always desire statistics 
of results. I have seen the statement of receipts and expenditures of the 
Wallkill factory, Orange county, for the year 1865. The quantity of milk 
received from April 1 to December 1 was six hundred and twenty-seven 
thousand one hundred and seventy-four quarts, of which twenty-seven 
thousand three hundred and eight quarts were sold at a little above seven 
cents per quart, leaving five hundred and ninety-nine thousand eight hundred 
and sixty-six quarts to be made up into butter and cheese. The product was 
as follows : thirty-one thousand six hundred and thirty pounds of butter, 
eighty-one thousand seven hundred and seventy-eight pounds of skim cheese, 
five thousand nine hundred and eight pounds of whole milk cheese, two 
thousand two hundred and sixty-one quarts of ci*eam, sold at nineteen and 
six-tenths cents per quart, and one thousand five hundred and sixty-one quarts 
of skim milk, at one and five-eighths cents per quart. The net cash receipts, 
after deducting transportation and commissions, were as follows : 

For pure milk sold $1,926 23 

skim milk , 24 02 

butter 13,344 21 

skim ciieese 11,659 08 

whole milk cheese 1,065 44 

2,261 quarts cream 443 33 

hogs fed upon whey 446 24 

buttermilk and sundries 207 49 

Making a total of. 29,116 03 

The expense account was as follows : 

For labor $1,476 40 

fuel 79 96 

cheese boxes 653 17 

20 sacks salt 89 25 

rennet, bandage, &c 483 55 

carting cheese 273 10 

hogs 179 90 

3,235 33 
This gives an aggregate net receipt of $25,880 70. 

From these statements it appears that the butter averaged forty-two and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 241 

a-quarter cents per pound, the skim cheese fourteen and a-quarter cents, and 
the whole milk cheese eighteen cents per pound, while the average amount 
received on the whole quantity of milk was four and one-tenth cents per 
quart. The expenses of the factory were a little over half-a-cent per quart. 

From a report of average sales of cheese from the New York and Ohio 
factories, it appears that fifteen and a-half cents per pound was all that has 
been obtained by a majority of the best whole milk cheese factories during 
the year 1865, and the compai'ative profits may be thus stated: 

Fourteen quarts of milk, making three pounds of cheese, (at fifteen and 
a-half cents,) forty-six and a-half cents ; deduct cost of manufacturing, 
boxes, &c., six cents — leaving forty and a-half cents. " 

At the butter and skim cheese factory, fourteen quarts of milk, at four 
and one-tenth cents per quart, amount to fifty-seven and two-fifths cents ; 
deduct cost of manufacturing, &c., seven cents, and we have a difference of ten 
cents in favor of the butter and skim cheese on every fourteen quarts of milk. 

It may be asked. How do the butter and skim milk factories compare with 
those dairies where butter alone is manufactured from the milk ? I have no 
statistics from dairies in Orange county showing the quantity of milk for a 
pound of butter, but was told that by the factory system of taking off part 
of the cream and working up the skim milk, greater profits were realized. 

The Hon. Zadock Pratt, in the account given of his butter dairy in 
Gi'een county, gives the average quantity of milk required for a pound of 
butter during the season of 1860, to be eleven and twenty-hundredths quarts, 
and in 1861, ten and forty-two hundredths quarts. In 1859 it took fourteen 
and fifty hundredths quarts, and in 1858, sixteen and sixteen hundredths 
quarts, for one pound of butter. The milk in this dairy is set in shallow pans, 
and the cream skimmed ofi" after the milk has soured and begins to thicken. 
At the Orange county factories it is not desired to take all the cream from 
the milk, since a portion of it is needed in the skim cheese. That Avhich is 
taken off is fresh and sweet and is in condition to make the finest flavored 
butter. The management of the milk is without doubt the best that has yet 
been discovered, and should be generally adopted whenever good butter is 
sought after. The churning and working of the butter does not differ mate- 
rially at the factories from that of other experienced manufacturers. The 
cream is churned in the barrel and a-half dash churn, and the butter worked 
with a lever upon an inclined slab. The whole system commends itself to the 
dairy i^ublic, especially to the butter districts, and if the cheese-makers would 
adopt it at their factories for making spring, fall, and winter butter, large 
sums would be annually saved, and the public greatly benefited by being 
able to secure readily a desirable article. 

TOPOGKAPHICAL FEATURES OF ORAiSTGE CO. CHARACTER OF THE SOIL, ETC. 

Orange county is broken up into numerous hills and valleys. The southern 
and eastern parts are mountainous. The great valleys run in a northeasterly 
16 



242 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

and southwesterly direction. The Shawangunk mountains are at the north- 
west, and along the northern boundaries of the county flows the Shawangunk- 
kill, a considerable stream which empties into the Wallkill. The Wallkill, 
risino- in New Jersey, passes in a northerly direction through the central 
portion of the county and into Ulster county, emptying into the Hudson at 
Rondout. It is a sluggish stream, except in times of high water, in spring and 
fall, but furnishes abundant and durable water power along its entire course. 
Along the valley of the Wallkill are some of the best farming lands in the 
county. There is a diversity of soil in the county, gravelly and sandy loams, 
light and heavy clay loams, and alluvial soils. The interior of the county is 
a rolling upland, broken in many places by abrupt and isolated hills, and the 
valleys and streams. In the town of Blooming Grove, the land is undulating, 
but in some places broken by ridges of rocks. The soil is generally a clayey 
loam, running sometimes into a gravelly loam, and, adjoining the ridges of 
slate rock, becoming a sandy loam. West of the valley of the Wallkill, the 
prevailing soil is a clayey loam, well adapted to grazing. It is in this district 
that the famous Goshen butter is produced. Here abound the natural 
meadows that have not received a plow for more than a hundred years. The 
soil on these meadows is a black earth, made up from the wash of the hills 
and slopes, and is rich in vegetable mold. In some parts the soil is slaty, 
and strips of land occur that are stony, being filled with boulders and frag- 
ments of rock, but the whole section seems to be fertile and productive of 
grasses that are sweet and nourishing. The water is pure and the climate 
healthy. Soft and hard water are often found upon the same farm. A con- 
siderable portion of the surface of Orange county is occupied by the Hudson 
river group of rocks, which takes a north-east and south-west direction. On 
the banks of the Hudson, above Newburgh, is found the Utica slate. The 
Trenton limestone is found near Mount Lookout, in Goshen, and in the 
adjoining town of Hamtonburgh. The Black river limestone is found in 
Goshen, and is the rock of which Mount Lookout is made up. 

THE BUTTER GRASSES OF ORANGE COUNTY. 

In the old pastures there are several varieties of grasses, that spring up 
spontaneously, and aflford sweet and nutritious feed, and from which the best 
qualities of milk and butter are produced. These grasses form a rich, thick 
turf, leaving no intervening spaces. In our conversation with farmers, much 
importance was given to these natural grasses as a means of securing the 
richest milk and the finest butter, and some affirmed that it was impossible 
to obtain the best flavored butter or so large a result from recently re-seeded 
grounds of clover and timothy. These grasses are similar to those found in 
the old pastures of Herkimer, Lewis, and Oneida — they embrace the June or 
blue grass, the fowl meadow grass, poa serotina^ meadow fescue, festuca 
pratensis^ red-top, agrostis vulgaris, the wire grass, poa compressa., and the 
sweet-scented vernal and vanilla grass. Timothy, orchard grass, red clover, 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



243 



and other forage plants are also grown in pastures and meadows. The sweet- 
scented vernal grass grows best upon the moist soil of the old meadows ; it 
starts very early and gives off an agreeable odor. The June grass is regarded 
as very valuable, throwing out a dense mass of leaves, highly relished by 





JtiNE Grass. 



Eed-Top. 



cattle, and from which a superior quality of butter is made. It is found growing 
throughout the butter districts of the county. The wire grass is deemed 
one of the most nutritious of the grasses, is very hardy, eagerly sought after 
by cattle, and is one of the best grasses for fattening. Cows feeding upon it 
yield milk of the richest quality, and from which the nicest butter is made. 



244 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in sliaded places, and its stem is 
green after the seed has ripened. It is found growing in all parts of the 
county. The meadow fescue is common in the old grass lands where the sod ■ 
is thick and grasses of different variety mingled together. It starts up earlyjl 
in spring, is relished by stock, and furnishes good early feed. The milk 





Orchard Grass. Meadow Fescue. 

farmers hold it in high estimation as a reliable grass, tenacious of lite, and 
not running out like timothy or clover. 

I have been thus particular in describing the soil and grasses of Orange 
county, that farmers in other sections may make a comparison with their own 
lands, and be better able to judge wherein the one differs from the other. I 



Practical Daiey Husbandry. 



2-15 



may remark here, that weeds common in other sections are common also in 
Orange comity. The white daisy, the thistle, the golden rod, the fire weed, 
the snap-dragon and other weeds, seem to be common in the county. West 
of the Wallkill, farmers complain of the snap-dragon as the worst weed 



^ 



A 




SWEET-SCKNTED VeRNAI. POA CoMPESSA. 

against which they have to contend. The daisy is not regarded as formidable, 
since manuring with barn-yard manure, salt and plaster, it is said, will rid 
the land of this pest. The rag weed, we observed, was common in cultivated 
grounds, but it was said, did not trouble grass lands. 



246 Practical Dairy Husbandry, 

the stock. 

The herds are usually made up of native and grade cattle. In the milk 
dairies there is no particular prominence given to thorougli-breds any mora 
than in other localities of the dairy region. There is a sprinkling of Short- 
Horns, Ayrshires, Devons and Alderneys, and occasionally some Dutch cattle. 

The farms are not generally above an hundred acres. Mr. Slaughtee, 
who has an excellent farm about a mile and a-half west of the Wallkill, will 
carry forty-five head of cattle upon one hundred and fifty acres. His farm 
contains a hundred and seventy-five acres, twenty-five of which are in timber. 
He usually has about twelve acres annually under the plow, raising corn, oats, 
and wheat in rotation, and then seeding down to grass, and this is the rota- 
tion usually followed in this section of the county. The soil here, and 
generally through the county, is well adapted to corn, and the average crop 
will reach fifty bushels per acre. Wheat yields twenty-five bushels per acre, 
and oats from sixty to seventy bushels. Farmers generally do not believe in 
feeding down pastures close, so as to expose the roots of the grass to a 
burning sun, but rather seek to have the ground covered at all times with a 
good growth of herbage. 

SYSTEM OF ORGANISING FACTORIES. 

The farmers of a neighborhood join together and erect the buildings, each 
one paying in proportion to the size of farm or number of cows from which 
milk is to be delivered. After the structure is completed and furnished, a 
superintendent is chosen, and help hired for running the factory, and the 
expenses are shared by stockholders, in proportion to the amount of milk 
delivered. Repairs, additions, &c., from year to year, are added to the 
expense account. 

THE CAPTAINS MARKETING BUTTER. 

. The manner of marketing butter differs from that practiced in other sec- 
tions. Consignments are not generally made direct to the New York dealers, 
but shipments are entrusted to captains, as they are called, or persons who 
make it a business to collect freight and take it in charge to New York, mak- 
mg the sales and returning the proceeds to the manufacturer. These captains 
go with their freight twice a week, are men of standing and responsibility, 
who are well posted in the trade, and know how and where to obtain the best 
prices. They receive a commission for their labors, and find it to their interest 
to make good bargains, otherwise they would lose the confidence of those 
entrusting freight to their charge, and would therefore be displaced. These 
captains often receive proposals or offers for large lots of butter, which are 
submitted to the factories, when they are rejected or accepted, as seems best 
to the parties interested. 

THE MILK BUSINESS. 

Since the construction of the New York & Erie railroad, large quantities 
of milk are daily shipped to New York from the several depots. The milk 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 247 

trains start out of Goshen and Middletown late in the afternoon, and milk 
is shipped only once a day. A portion of the milk, when it arrives in New 
York and is ready for the milk carts, is thirty-six hours old. To carry milk 
sweet for that length of time, in hot weather, requires some art in handling, 
and this seems to be well understood by the Orange county farmers. The 
milk, as soon as it comes from the cow, is strained and put in long tin pails, 
which are set in water, care being taken that no portion of the milk be 
higher than the water. These pails look like sections, of stove-pipe, being 
eight inches in diameter, and from seventeen inches to twenty inches long. 
The milk is occasionally stirred so as to keep the cream from rising It is 
deemed important that the animal heat be removed as soon as may be, at least 
in an hour's time after it comes from the cow. The old plan, which is yet 
practised by some, is to cool the milk in the cans, but it is regarded as a very 
unsafe way when it is designed to have the milk keep sweet for a considerable 
length of time. The milk stands in the pails until ready to be carted to the 
trains, when it is put in cans holding from fifty to sixty gallons. These cans 
are filled full, and the cover, which fits close, adjusted. 

Within a few years past creameries have been established within conven- 
ient distance along the route of the railroad, where the milk is cooled, and 
from thence shipped to the depot. Here farmers daily deliver their milk, 
night and morning, as at our cheese factories, where it is measured and 
credited, and no further trouble is had with it on their part. At the cream- 
eries a part of the cream is taken ofi" the milk, put up in cans which, when ready 
for shipment, are set in wooden tubs, made so as to be tapering towards the 
bottom. The space between the cans and tubs is then packed with ice, the 
cover fastened, and it is ready for shipment. 

"WALLKILL CKEAMERY ASSOCIATION'. 

The main building consists of a two-storied structure, arranged on a 
plan similar to our cheese factories. Below are the vats, presses, &c., for 
making cheese, and above is the dry room. On one end of this building is 
erected the spring house, containing two rooms, the one twelve feet by sixteen 
feet, and the other fourteen feet by twenty-four feet. It has windows and 
doors for ventilation. The packing and churning room is a separate building, 
twelve feet by twenty-four feet, and stands opposite the spring room, with a 
narrow alley between. Adjoining to and connected with this is the horse- 
power for churning, and a store room. The establishment receives the milk 
from four hundred cows, and after the cream is taken from the milk, the milk 
is made up into skim cheese. 

THE SPRINGS AND MANNER OF TREATING THE MILK. 

There are two springs in the spring house. Vats are constructed about 
the springs for holding the water. They are three in number, twelve feet 
long by six feet wide, set down even with the floor, and with racks in the 
bottom for holding the cans. The water flows up through these racks and 



248 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



above them to the depth of seventeen inches. The pails are twenty-two 
inches long, and eight inches in diameter, and as fast as the milk is received 
they are filled within five or six inches of the top, and immediately placed in 
the water. Care is taken that the surface of the milk in the pails is not above 
that of the water in the spring. The pails are set close together, and one 
spring will hold two thousand and forty quarts of milk. The spring sliould 
have a sufficient flow of Avater to divest the milk of the animal heat in less 
than an hour. Mr. Slaughter regards fifty-six degrees as the highest tem- 
perature that the water of the spring should be, for conducting operations 
successfully. He has not determined the pi-ecise tem23erature of water best 



HORS£ I 
POWER I 



oo 

CHURN ROOM 




1 II 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 


i 


PRESSES- 




E 


\JA T 




E^ 






, VAT 




'-' C/¥£rS£rAfAA//^G/?OOM i 


1 WASA//^Omf 





o 




Ground Plan of Wallkill Creamery — the First Butter Factory Erected. 
1, Water Pipe ; 2, Churns ; 3, Butter Worker ; 4, Whey Cistern. 

adapted for obtaining the most cream from the milk, but is satisfied from his 
experiments that the natural temperature of the water should not be below 
forty-eight degrees, nor above fifty-six degrees. He says, more cream, and 
that of better quality for butter making, can be obtained by setting the milk 
on the above plan, than in shallow pans. The object is to expose as little of 
the surface of the milk to the air as possible, in order that the top of the 
cream may not get dry, which has a tendency to fleck the butter, and injure 
its flavor. 

The milk of one day is left in the spring until next morning, when it is 
taken out, the <iream dipped ofiT and put immediately in the churns. In 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 



249 




removing the cream a little tunnel shaped cup, with a long upright handle, 
is used. It is gently pushed into the pails and the cream dipped off. It is 
very expeditiously effected, and the milk line easily determined by the appear- 
ance of the milk. The cream in the fall of the year, and 
in springs is churned sweet. In summer, the cream is 
dipped into the same pails and returned to the spring, 
and kept there until it sours. As fast as the cream is 
removed, the milk in the pails is emptied into the vats 
for making skim cheese. 

THE CHURN-ROOM AND CHURNING. 

The churning is done by horse power. The churns 
are the common barrel and a-half dash churn, four in 
number, and are placed on 

Pail fob Settinc^e Milk, ^ach side of the power, SO as 
AND ckeam Dipper. ^^ ^g ^^ worked together. 

About fifty quarts of cream are put in each churn, 
and each then receives a pail of cold spring water 
and the mass is brought to a temperature of six- 
ty-three degrees to sixty-four degrees. In warm 
weather ice is sometimes broken up and put in 
the churn to reduce the temperature to fifty-six 
degrees, but it is deemed better to churn without 
ice if the cream does not get above sixty-four 
degrees in the process of churning, as butter 
made with ice is more sensitive to heat. It is, 
howevei", a less evil to use ice than to have the 
butter come from the churn white and soft. It 
requires from forty-five minutes to an hour to 
churn, when the butter should come solid and 
of a rich yellow color. It is then taken from the 
churns and thoroughly washed in spring water. 
In this process the ladle is used, and three times 
pouring on water is generally all that is required. 
It is then salted at the rate of one pound and ^ 
■\ /I >(«!5Sri!555sv two ounces of = 



^ 



XI 





salt to twenty. ^"^^^ <^"™^^ ^^'^■ 

two pounds of butter. In making winter 

butter a little more salt is added at the last 

working. The butter, after having been 

salted and worked, is allowed to stand till 

Chfrn Dashees. evening, and is then worked a second time 

and packed in sixty pound pails and shipped twice a week to New York. 

At this factory in hot weather, after the butter is salted and worked over, 



250 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



it is taken to the spring and immersed in the water where it remains until 
evening when it is taken out and worked over and packed. For winter butter 
a small teaspoonful of pulverized saltpetre and a large tablespoonful of white 
sugar are added for the twenty-two pounds of butter at the last working. 
No coloring matter is used in butter at this establishment. 

The butter is worked on an inclined slab with beveled sides running down 
to the lower end and within four inches of each other. A long wooden lever, 
so formed as to fit in a socket at this point, is used for working the butter. 
It is very simple and does the Avork effectually. In churning, the dashers are 
so arranged as to go within a quarter of an inch of the bottom of the churn 
at every stroke, and rise above the cream in their upward stroke. 

When butter is packed in firkins, none but those made of white oak are 
used. These firkins are very handsomely made, and are tight so as not to 
allow the least leakage. Before using they are soaked in cold water, and 




The Butteb Bowl and Ladle. 

after that in hot water, and then again with cold water. After being filled 
with butter they are headed up and strong brine poured in at the top to fill 
all the intervening spaces. The pails for holding the milk in the springs are 
daily cleaned with soap and hot water, rinsed in spring water, and put on a 
rack to dry. In furnishing a factory two pails are allowed for each cow, as 
it is necessary to have a double set. 

THE CHEESE. 

In making the cheese, the milk is set at eighty-two degrees ; highest heat, 
ninety-six degrees to ninety-eight degrees, and three pounds of salt to one 
hundred of curd. The curd is pressed in fourteen inch hoops, and cheese 
made four inches high. They are of a very good flavor, and by no means 
unpalatable — though of course, inferior to pure milk cheese. These cheeses are 
shipped to warm climates, and many of them go to China in exchange for tea. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



251 



OKANGE COUNTY MILK ASSOCIATION. 

This establishment commenced operations in 1862. The main building 
is sixty feet by twenty-four feet, and is located about four miles northeast from 
Middletown. The number of cows from which milk is delivered is five 
hundred and fifty, and the farmers owning the building number thirty. The 
construction of the building and spring house is similar to that of the Wall- 
kill Association. There are two spring rooms, each ten by twenty-four feet. 
The water here is soft, aud stands at a temperature of fifty degrees. 

The factory stands near or adjoining a wet and springy piece of ground, 
covered with fragments of rock from the Shawangunk Mountains. At this 



VAT 





GEOtTND Plan op Orange County Milk Associatioit Bctteb Factobt, 

establishment, in addition to the spring room there is a cellar twelve feet 
by fourteen feet, with walls nicely laid up with stone, and extending into the 
bank, at the rear end of the building. Here the butter is stored in summer as 
soon as packed, where it remains until ready to be shipped. 

In the fall of the year, when cream does not readily sour, it is put in the 
churn in the evening and a can of water raised to 100° set in the cream. It 
is left there over night, and by morning the cream sours. 

EOCKVILLE MILK ASSOCIATION. 

The main structure is twenty-five by fifty feet — two stories, which are used 
for manufacturing and curing cheese — adjoining this on one end, is the spring 
room, and on the side running back in the shape of L, is the churn room, 
twenty by thirty feet. On the end of the churn room is the ice house, which 
is arranged so as to lead out of the churn room with a broad hall or alley, 
which serves as a cellar for storing butter. 



252 



Practical Dairy Husbanbry. 



This hall has double sides packed in with tan-bark, and the ice-house being 
on one side, with communication by door, makes it a cool and nice place for 
keeping butter or cream in summer. In the spring room there are two A'ats, 
one nine feet by twelve feet, and the other eight feet by twelve feet, sunk 
even with the floor, and arranged so as to be filled from one spring. The 
temperature of the water is 48®. It is soft water, but less so than those at 
the other factories to which we have referred. The delivery of the milk is at a 
window and on a platform the liight of the wagon. As the teams drive up, the 
cans are slid upon the platform and emptied into a large receiving box or can of 

tin inside the window, standing upon platform 

scales, where the milk is weighed and then 

conducted out by two faucets into the long 

tin pails or coolers. The cost of structure 

and fixtures was $3,000. The number of 

cows from which milk is delivered is four 

hundred and twenty-five, and on November 

1st the receipts were eighteen hundred quarts 

— estimating a quart, wine measure, to weigh 

^ 5 two pounds. Milk varies in weight, and a 

^ ^ M wine quart weighs at some seasons of the 

^ 30 year, a trifle over two pounds. During the 

• I OO A 



>^3 




Ground Plan of Rockvillb Butter Factory. 

month of May, when cows are in pasture, Mr. Slaughter finds that one 
hundred quarts, wine measure, will weigh two hundred and eleven pounds. 
The milk here is kept in the spring from twenty-four to thirty-six hours, when 
the cream is taken off" and alloAved to sour, and then churned. Mr. Upte- 
GROVE, the Superintendent of the factory, says that about one-tenth more 
butter is obtained from the cream when churned sour than when sweet. 

BUTTER MAKING AT THE ORANGE COUNTY FACTORY. 

The churns are the barrel and a-half dash churn, and are filled about half 
full of cream, which is diluted by putting in cold Avater in summer and warm 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



253 



water in cold weather, at the rate of sixteen to thirty quarts for each mess or 
churning. The temperature of the cream in summer, when the churns are 
started is about 60°, but in cold weather they are started at about 64°. 
When a mess of cream is to be churned the churns are filled about half full, 
and a pail of spring Avater added to dilute the cream ; in warm weather cold 
water is used and in cold weather warm water, so as to make the mass at a 
temperature of 60° to 62°. The temperature of the cream while churning is 
kept below 65 °, for if at the close of the churning the buttermilk should be at 
a temperature above 64° the flavor and color of the butter are injured. When 
the butter begins to come, the churn is rinsed down with cold water. After 
the butter is taken from the churn, care is taken not to touch it more than is 
necessary with the hands. The butter trays are elliptical in shape, and the 
ladle is used for turning over the butter while it is being washed. In salting 
and working over, the whole is done by the buiter-worker heretofore 
described, and great care is taken not to work it too much, as overworking 
spoils the grain and makes the butter salvy, A twenty-two pound batch is 
laid upon the inclined slab or butter-worker, and the lever applied, first 
beginning at one side, until the whole is gone over. Only a few manipula- 
tions of this kind are required, and one is surprised at the expedition with 
which this part of the process is efiected. The salting and working of the 
butter is by the same rule adopted at the other factories, eighteen ounces of 
salt being used for twenty-two pounds of butter. 

The butter-worker is similar to the one alluded to, except that the lever 
is diamond-shaped, which it is claimed is an improvement. The inclined 

triangular slab on which the butter is 
worked stands upon legs, and has beveled 
sides about three inches high. It is four 
feet long and twenty-five inches wide at 
the upper end, tapering down to five 
inches at the lower end. At this point 
there is an opening for the escape of the 
butter-milk into a pail below. In salting, 
the butter is washed and then spread out Avith the ladle upon the worker, and 
fine, pure Ashton salt sprinkled over the mass. It is then turned over a little 
with the ladle and afterwards worked with the lever. 

At this factory there was a little contrivance consisting of a wheel and 
lever and weight" for regulating the stroke of the dashers when churning. 
The trays are elliptical, being two and a-half feet long and one and a-half feet 
across, and will hold twenty-five pounds of butter. The butter is packed in 
Orange county pails or tubs holding sixty pounds, or in oak firkins of eighty 
pounds, as at the other factories, and shipped twice a week to New York, 
bringing seventy cents per pound. The association is composed of twenty- 
eight farmers who have dairies running from five to ten and up to thirty cows. 




Obanse county Butter- Wobkek. 



254 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



Four farmers not belonging to the association deliver milk here and are 
charged $1.50 per cow extra. 




Return Butter Pail. 



FiBKm. 
Orange County Butter Packages. 



Half FmKiN. 



DAIRY PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The following tables give the number of pounds of butter and cheese 
made in different sections of the Union, according to the census returns of 
1850 and 1860. The total production of butter in the United States and 
Territories in 1850 was 313,345,306 pounds, and in 1860, 469,681,372 pounds. 
Of cheese, the product in 1850 was 105,535,893, pounds, and in 1860, 103,- 
663,927 pounds, showing an increase in the production of butter, and a 
decrease in cheese during that decade. From the tables it will be seen which 
States are largely interested in this branch of industry. For convenience of 
reference we have arranged the States in groups : 

Amount of Butler and Clieese made in 1860 and 1850. 



1860. 



1850. 



I860. 



NEW ENGLAND STATES, 

Connecticut, 

Maine, 

Massachusetts, 

New Hampshire, 

Rhode Island, 

Vermont,.. . . , 

Total, 

MIDDLE STATES. 

New York, 

Pennsylvania, 

New Jersey, 

Delaware, 

Maryland, 

District of Columbia, ." ." 

Total, 



7,620,912 

11,687,781 

8,297,936 

6,956,764 

10,211,767 

15,900,359 



,498,119 
243,811 
,071,370 
,977,056 
995,670 
137,980 



60,675,519 



52,924,006 



103,097.280 

58,653,511 

10,714.447 

1,430.502 

5,265,295 

18,835 



79,766,094 

39,878.418 

9,487,210 

1,055,308 

3,806,160 

14,872 



179,179,870 



134,008,062 



3,898,411 
1.799,862 
5,294,090 
2,232,092 
181,511 
8,215,030 



5,363,277 
2,434.454 

7,088,142 

3,196,563 

316,508 

8,720,834 



21,620,996 



27,119,778 



48,548,289 

2,508,556 

182,172 

6,579 

8,342 



51,253,938 



49,741,413 

2,505,034 

365,756 

3,187 

3,975 

1,500 



52,620,865 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 255 

Amount uf l)\ilter aud cheese made in 1860 and 1850. — Continued. 



18G0. 



1850. 



1860. 



1850. 



WESTERN STATES. 

Indiana 

Illinois, 

Iowa, 

Michigan, 

Minnesota, 

Missouri, 

Ohio, 

Kentucky, 

Wisconsin, 

Kansas, 

Nebraslca, 

Total, 

SOUTHERN STATES. 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Mississippi, 

Louisiana, 

North Carolina, 

South Carolina, 

Tennessee, 

Texas, 

Virginia, 

Total, 

PACIFIC STATES AND TERRITORIES, 

CaliTornia, 

Oregon, 

New Mexico, 

Wasiiington, 

Utah, 

Total 



18,306 
28,052 
11.958 
15,503 

2,957 
12,704 
48,543 
11,716 
13,611 

1,093 
343 



,651 

,551 
,666 
,482 
,673 
837 
,162 
,609 
,328 
,497 
541 



164,786,997 



6,028,478 
4,067,556 
408,855 
5,439,765 
5,006,610 
1,444,743 
4,735,495 
3,777,934 

10,017,787 
5,850,583 

13,464,722 



60,242,258 



3,095,035 

1,000,157 

13,259 

153,092 

316,046 



4,577,589 



12,881,535 

12,526,543 

2,171,188 

7,065,878 

1,100 

7,834,359 

34,449,379 

9,947,523 

3,633,750 



90,511,255 



4,008,811 
1,854,239 

371,498 
4,640,599 
4,346,234 

683,069 
4,746,290 
2,981,850 
8,139,583 
2,344,900 
11,089,359 



45,206,392 



705 

211,464 

111 



83,309 



295,589 



605,795 

1,848,557 

918.635 

1,641,897 

199,314 

259,633 

21,618,893 

190,400 

1,104,300 

29,045 

12,342 



28,428,811 



15,923 

16,810 

5,280 

15,587 

4,427 

6,153 

51,119 

1,543 

133,575 

275,128 

280,852 



808,397 



1,343,689 

105,379 

37,240 

12,146 

53,331 



1,551,785 



624,564 

1,278,225 

209,840 

1,011,493 



203,572 

20,819,542 
213,954 
400,283 



24,761,472 



31,412 
30,088 
18,015 
46,976 
21,191 
1,957 
95,921 
4,970 

177,681 
95,299 

436,292 



959,802 



150 
36,980 

5,848 



30,998 



73,976 



We have not the exact figures on hand for giving the statistics of butter 
and cheese made in the Union during the year 1865, but the production of 
cheese in the middle and western States alone, it is believed, was more than 
two hundred millions of pounds. From facts gathered by the American 
Dairymen's Association, it is known that there are now upward of a thousand 
cheese factories in operation throughout the United States. If the number 
of cows to each be estimated at five hundred, we have half a million cows 
employed in the associated dairies, and if the average annual yield per cow 
be put at three hundred pounds, we have in the aggregate one hundred and 
fifty million pounds. But there are a large number of private or family 
dairies in operation, especially in the eastern or middle States, the production 



256 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



of which, it is believed, will more than make up the estimated annual product 
of cheese for 1865 to two hundred million pounds. 

If the value of the cheese product of 1865 be put on an average of fifteen M 
cents per pound, it shows a total of $30,000,000, while the butter product, if .■ 
no larger than that of 1860, at the low price of twenty-five cents per pound, 
would amount to over $114,000,000. In the estimate of the cheese product 
it will be proper to remark that the quantity is presumed to be the amount 
sold, and does not include that consumed in the families of producers. 

EXPORTS OF CHEESE AIS'D BUTTER. 

The statistics of trade show that the dairy products of the country are 
becoming an important branch of commerce. The following table gives the 
quantity of butter and cheese exported from New York for a series of years : 





LBS. OF BUTTER. 


LBS. OP CHEESE. 


1858 




5,098,000 

9,287,000 

23 252 000 


1859 


2,494,000 
10,987,000 
21,865,000 
29,241.000 
23,060;793 
14,174,861 
22,000,000 

5,000,000 


I860 


1861 


40 041 000 


1863 


38,722,000 
40.781,168 
46 755 842 


1863 


1864 


1865 


47 101 000 


1866 


45 000 000 


1867 


58 000 000 









The decrease in the cheese exjDorts of 1865 from those of the year previous, 
resulted from an extraordinary home demand, which took large quantities of 
cheese at a price in advance of what shippers felt warranted to pay for it to 
export. The shipments abroad have been mostly to Great Britain. A light 
exportation for a number of years has been kept up with the West Indies and 
with South America, the trade with the latter being for the most part in a 
a poorer grade of cheese made from skimmed milk. Recently this chai'acter 
of cheese has found a favorite reception in China, where parcels have been 
sent in exchange for tea. It is believed there is a wide range of market yet 
unopened for the disposal of American cheese, needing only a little enterprise 
on the part of dealers for its introduction ; and that when once introduced, it 
. will increase steadily until a heavy foreign demand is reached. Great Britain 
alone can now take considerably more than our surplus, and since the qualities 
and adaptation of styles to her needs meets, year by year, greater favoi-, the 
time cannot be far distant when America will be regarded, if she be not 
already, the great cheese-producing country of the world. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN DAIRYING THEIR POINTS OF DIFFERENCE AND 

COMPARATIVE MERITS. 

Associated dairying is now conducted on so large a scale, and has so 
wide a range in America, as to give it distinctive features of nationality. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 257 

European writers have asserted that this system was inaugurated in Switzer- 
land, and that America simply borrowed the idea, putting it into successful 
operation, and therefore is not entitled to any mei'it as to its originality. 
Without stopping to point out the great dissimilarity between the associated 
dairy management of Switzerland and that of America, the truth of history 
demands the statement, that whatever excellence may attach to the American 
system, nothing in it has been borrowed from abroad. In the report of the 
Department of Agriculture for 1865 I gave a brief account of the origin of 
the cheese factory movement. Having been familiar with its early history, 
with the men and causes that led the way to this improvement in dairy prac- 
tice, I feel competent to speak authoritatively on the subject, and claim its 
originality as wholly American. 

The American factory system now stands pre-eminently in advance of 
dairy practice in the Old World. By it a more uniform and better product 
of cheese and butter can be made. These must soon take the lead in Euro- 
pean markets, and European nations will adopt the system or be content to 
see their own products rank as secondary, and sold at inferior prices. Since 
the adoption of the factory system a large export trade has grown up between 
America and Great Britain. The value of American cheese now sent abroad 
is from seven to ten millions of dollars annually, and as factories improve in 
the quality of their manufacture, a much larger trade, it is believed, will be 
inaugurated. 

England is old in dairy husbandry, and always claimed superiority in dairy 
practice. A great many styles of cheese are manufactured, and some of them 
sell in their pi'incipal markets at better prices than that made at our factories. 
American dairymen, previous to 1866 had never been able to find out wherein 
this superiority lay. In view of the large trade already existing, and likely 
to increase, it was deemed important that a better knowledge of English 
dairy husbandry and cheese-making be obtained. The American Dairy Asso- 
ciation, therefore, engaged the writer to go abroad for this purpose, and the 
following pages are briefly the result of observations over the dairy districts 
of Great Britain during the summer of 1866. The dairy lands of Great 
Britain, it is believed, are no better than in the best dairy districts of America. 
Pastures, there, it is true, will generally carry more stock than ours, because 
theirs are freer from weeds and better managed. The yield of hay from per- 
manent meadows is no larger than from our best lands, two tons per acre 
being considered a good crop, but theirs is composed of a greater variety 
of grasses, is finer, and doubtless more nutritious than ours on account of less 
waste in woody fiber. Their dairy stock is generally no better than in our 
first-class dairies. I think there is no county in England or Scotland where the 
average yield of cheese per cow is so large as in Herkimer county, New York. 

In the management of farms they are generally far in advance of us, but 
in cheese-making their appliances are inferior, their work more laborious, and 
they have but really one style of cheese that competes with the best grades 
17 



I 



258 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

of our factory make. This is the cheddar, of which the leading features in 
manufacture will be found under its appropriate head. In the cheddar process 
as well as in the management of stock of milk and dairy farms, there are 
doubtless suggestions which will be adopted in our practice when their supe- 
riority is demonstrated. I have endeavored to call attention to the fact, and 
to state the point clearly. 

THE CHEESE DISTEICTS OP ENGLAND. 

The cheese districts of England are grouped together in counties lying 
contiguous. Thus in the south are found Gloucester, Somerset, Wilts, 
Dorset, &c., while in the north there are Cheshire, Lancashire, Derbyshire, 
Leicestershire and Shropshire. Other counties produce cheese in limited 
quantities, but not to such an extent as to make it a leading business. I wentj 
into the southern districts first, and found three styles of cheese, each having' 
a diiferent shape and character, and differently manufactured. They were the 
Cheddar, the double and single Gloucester, and the Wilts. 

I had never seen any large tract of country so beautiful as this part of] 
England. It was in June, when the hedges were covered with dark greenl 
foliage, the pastures flecked with the daisy and butter-cup, flowers celebrated 
by the poets. But the English daisy is not to be confounded with that pest 
of our fields, the ox-eye daisy, for it is small and unpretending, and does not 
suck up the life of the land. Then the smooth roads, the villas, the farm-j 
houses, and the hamlets, with their adornments, together with the garden-likef] 
cultivation of the land, formed a picture ever to be remembered. For quiet,! 
pastoral scenery, England is surpassingly beautiful. Everything seems to be 
" picked up " and in place. You see no tumble-down fences, no unsightly 
stone heaps, disfiguring the land, no cheap wooden houses falling to pieces,| 
no remains of wood-piles and other accumulated trash, like a cancer blotching* 
the premises, but everything seems to be swept up and in order, or, to use a 
homely phrase, " prepared for company." M 

SOMEESET AND ITS SYSTEM OF EAEMING. 

Somerset has a rolling, undulating surface, and it is in this county that the 
famous Cheddar cheese originated. In form the county is difficult to describe, 
perhaps partaking more of an oblong figure than any other. According to 
recent returns of live stock, &c., its area is one million seventy-four thou- 
sand two hundred and twenty acres, containing four hundred and forty- 
four thousand eight hundred and seventy-three inhabitants ; eighty-four 
thousand two hundred and sixty-two cows ; eighty-nine thousand two hundred 
and fifty-seven young stock ; six hundred and thirty-six thousand nine hundred 
and seventy-five sheep ; and seventy-five thousand four hundred and sixty- 
nine pigs. The surface of the country is generally uneven, and towards the 
west, on the borders of North Devon, approaching to mountainous. The 
principal hills lie east and west, and are nearly parallel with each other. 
These ranges are generally poor, affording pasture for a coarse kind of sheep 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 259 

and some young cattle. The hill-tops of the south and south-west are covered 
with heather. The geological features of the country are varied, and are 
chiefly composed of mountain limestone, inferior oolite, the white and blue 
lias, and the new red sandstone. The highest hills are mountain limestone, 
which has been forced up from its proper place, and is found overtopping the 
upper strata to a hight of six or seven hundred feet. The eastern part of the 
country is generally oolitic, stretching away northward to Bath, at which 
place it produces some of the finest building stone in the kingdom. The lias 
comes next in rotation, cropping out from under the oolite westward. The 
red sandstone is not so prevalent. This, with the oolite, is the lightest soil upon 
which lai-ge flocks of sheep are kept, which in the south, are chiefly of the South 
Down breed, but in the northern district, towards Bath, are crossed with the 
Leicester, forming a larger and more remunerative animal. The method of 
farming is the four or five-field shift — 1st, wheat : 2d, green crop (turnips, 
vetches, etc.) ; 3d, barley ; 4th and 5th, clover first and second year. The 
wheat crop is from twenty-four to forty bushels per acre ; barley from thirty- 
two to sixty bushels, sometimes more. A heavier kind of land is found on 
the lias formation. A team of four horses, or six or eight oxen, is employed 
in plowing it. This is more productive of grain than the lighter land, and is 
farmed in a similar manner. 

In some places what is termed a dog-flock, that is, young sheep of a year 
or so old, are fattened for the Bristol and Bath markets. The lowlands and 
valleys are rich and i^roductive. Between the ranges of hills before noticed 
are some of the richest plains in England. The vale of Taunton Dean, in 
the south of the county, is extremely rich. Another nearly level plain extends 
from the town of Bridgewater to the Mendip hills, and eastward to the city 
of Wells. Another plain, but rather more uneven, stretches north of the 
Mendip towards Bristol. These plains are largely devoted to the fattening 
of beef and mutton for the supply of the local, and also the London markets. 
Somerset is noted for its cheese, of which large quantities are made. It bears 
the name of Cheddar from a small village at the foot of the Mendip hills. 
The name oi'iginated from the farmers of the village uniting the milk of their 
cows for the purpose of making a larger cheese. This was done at each 
other's houses in turn. From that time, which was about one hundred years 
ago, the thick cheese made in Somersetshire has borne the name of Cheddar, 
and bears the highest quotations of any English cheese in the London and 
other markets. It is made much thicker than was at first anticipated. The 
size that now is in request ranges from forty to eighty and up to one hundred 
pounds ; the shape is from ten to fourteen inches in depth, and fifteen and 
a-half inches in diameter. 

This county, and the others south, have suffered very little from the cattle 
plague. Dairy cows, however, during the season (1866) have been high, com- 
manding from eighteen to twenty pounds sterling per cow, or from ninety to 
one hundred dollars. The dairy cows are motley grades, and so far as I have 



260 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

seen, do not show any better milking qualities than the first-class dairies of 
Herkimer and Oneida counties, New York. 

DESCEIPTIOIS" OF STOCK. 

The cattle kept in the county at this time are the Devon and Short-Horn, 
the former pure of their kind, the latter rarely so, but have been employed to 
improve the original stock of the country. The Devons are said to have been 
formerly (with few exceptions), a small, three-cornered, nondescript animal, 
of little use to the dairyman, and less to the breeder and grazier. Their 
home is South Somerset and North Devon, The race is wonderfully improved 
through the energy and perseverance of some farmers, who have taken the 
best animals they could find and bred from them, until they have succeeded 
in producing one of the best animals of which England can boast. In the 
opinion of some no beef is equal to it, the fat and lean being so nicely inter- 
mingled. Their milking qualities are not yet equal to those of other kinds. 
A few years since there was a breed called the Hampshire cow, a useful 
animal for any purpose, of good constitution, size, milk, and beef. Mr. 
Harding gave me a description of a cow of this breed, nearly the last of the 
race, which was twenty years old, and had been milked the jDrevious summer, 
and in the March following went to the butchers at £20 Is. I was told that 
fifty years ago, in the neighborhood of the Mendip hills, they had what was 
termed the " Mendip cow," of little service but to milk ; but both these good, 
and inferior animals have passsed away, and they have scarcely any cow 
but what partakes, in a greater or less degree, of the Short-Horn breed. 

QUANTITY or CHEESE, ETC. 

The increased quantity of cheese supplied by this county is not due, it is 
said, to the change of stock, so much as to the superior management of the 
present day in feeding stock, clearing the hedge-rows, and draining the wet 
land, &c. Fewer cows were kept thirty years ago than now. It was then 
generally supposed that no more could be kept with advantage beyond what 
half of the pasture or grass land would supply with grass in the summer, and 
the other half cut for the winter. Now they keep more cows, mow less, and 
in winter do with less hay ; they feed with straw and oil cake while the cows 
are dry, so that they get little or no hay till thej" calve. Three pounds of 
cake per day (the best American) they say will keep a cow in fair condition 
if straw be given ad libitum. In some particular districts as much as six 
hundred weight or six hundred and seventy-two pounds of cheese per cow, 
it is said, are made. This is on the best cheese-producing land ; and this, 
from long observation, is chiefly on some one of the oolite formations. Not 
only does it produce the largest amount of cheese, but also of butter. There 
are no statistics of the quantity of cheese made annually in the county, but 
from all I can gather, it is from eighteen million to twenty-five million of 
pounds. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 261 

wiltshire. 
For diversity and beauty of scenery Wiltshire is not equal to Somerset. 
Its geological formation, in general terms, may be classed in three divisions, 
namely, the white lias, which is lowest, the several classes of oolite, and the 
chalk. According to the late returns the ai'ea is 865,092 acres. The number 
of cows kept is 44,760 ; young stock and oxen, 32,967 ; sheep, 596,822 ; and 
pigs, 61,012. The natural division of the county is so remarkably distinct, 
that it must be described accordingly, viz., north and south. The south part, 
with a few exceptions, is the chalk district, and forms what is called the 
Wiltshire downs. Lying high, the land is very thin ; still the valleys and 
slopes are rich for growing grain and turnips. The farms are large, some 
1,000 to 2,000 acres. Large numbers of sheep, known as the South Downs, 
are kept upon these farms. They have black faces and feet, the wool short 
and fine. The mutton commands the highest price in the London market of 
any in the kingdom. Though small in size, they will frequently load them- 
selves with flesh, so as to reach 120 pounds in weight. In this district is the 
celebrated Salisbury Plain, also on the chalk. It is not strictly a plain, except 
in general appearance ; but is beautifully undulating, not unlike the ocean 
with its long swells after a storm. The farming of this district is generally 
the four-field system. In some places, such as on the white clay and the sandy 
loam at the bottom of the hills, it is worked in the three-field system. All 
the light land is plowed with two horses. Neat and good farming is every- 
where seen, and it is claimed is scarcely surpassed in England. North Wilt- 
shire is very difierent in appearance from the south. The broad uninclosed 
downs are no more seen, but rather inclosed fields with numbers of trees in 
the hedges, giving the appearance of forests from the surrounding hights. 
This is the oolite district, and is farmed in much the same manner as the 
south, being all light lands. The temperature of the climate being warmer, 
the grain ripens earlier and is therefore less liable to blight. 

THE WHITE LIAS AND DAIRY DISTRICT. 

The lias is a very small portion and may be merged into the dairy district, 
which is principally in the middle and northern j)arts. The cows are Short- 
Horns, and regarded here as the most useful in England, excellence in milk 
and meat being alike sought for. A large quantity of cheese is made which 
finds its way to the London and other markets. The quality of the cheese 
is not the best ; a little milk butter is usually taken out, but not always, but 
a large quantity of whey butter is often made. The method of cheese making 
is laborious, not so much in the manipulation of the curd ^s in the salting and 
pressing and the preparation for market, all being unnecessary labor. The 
salting, which might and ought to be in the curd, is continued over two or 
three days, rubbing it in with the hand over the external parts of the cheese, 
which receives a fresh cloth every time it is salted, which in some instances 
is twice a day. The cheese is then continued in the press, turned every 



262 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

morning for from four to six days, after which it may venture to the cheese 
room, which is a large, airy room, supposed to be requisite for properly dry- 
ing. The cheese is then allowed to throw out a coat, generally blue. This 
coat must be scraped off and a new one formed, after which it goes to the 
market, realizing from ten to fifteen shillings, under the improved Cheddar 
price. Wiltshire, up to the 21st of April last, had lost but ninety-nine cattle 
on account of cattle plague, and I heard of no cases in the county during the 
summer. 

The principal dairy district of Wilts ranges from Westbury, in the south, 
to Chippenham, northward, around Chippenham and towards Swindon, from 
forty to fifty miles in length. It is generally narrow from Westbury to Chip- 
penham, and from Chippenham to Swindon from ten to twelve miles wide 
and a pretty level tract of country. Before reaching Salisbury to the south 
you strike the chalk formation which underlies the " Salisbury plains." In 
going to Salisbury from the north, the chalk first shows itself in a range of 
high bluffs or hills. The chalk lands are rather light and are worked with 
two horses, while with the heavier lands three or four horses are attached to 
the plow. Upon the lowlands the soil is of richer character. In passing 
through this county one is continually coming upon large flocks of sheep in 
charge of shepherds— mutton sheep, of course, since the production of meat 
is always an important element in the resources of British agriculture. 

MANNER OF MAKING WILTS CHEESE. 

There is nothing in the manufacture of Wilts cheese that would be of 
any account to the dairymen of America, and it is a matter of surprise that 
the people of this district are so bound up in old practices as to waste their 
time and substance in manufacturing cheese of this character. Comparing 
the Wiltshire method and the apparatus in use with our factory system, the 
latter is about a century in advance. I give some of the leading features of 
the Wilts method of manufacture, not for the purpose of benefiting anybody, 
but rather as a matter of curiosity, if I may so term it. I was upon some of 
the best farms of Wiltshire, and among some of the most intelligent of its 
cheese makers, and shall give their best practice. 

The night's milk is skimmed in the morning and added to the morning's 
mess ; milk set at 80° and left about an hour to coagulate. It is then broken 
up with a circular breaker having an upright handle and used as you would 
push a churn dash up and down. The breaking is done gently at first. In 
cooking the mass is raised to 100°, stirring all the time with the breaker. 
It is then left to rest, and as soon as the curd can be handled it is taken out 
of scald and put to press. It remains in press twenty minutes ; is then taken 
out, ground and salted at the rate of two pounds of salt to the hundred weight 
of curd. It is ground again and put to press. The next day the cheese ia 
taken out of press and salted on the outside, receives a new cloth, and is put 
back to press, the same course being pursued for two successive days, after 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 263 

which it gets no more salting, but is kept in press eight days, each day being 
taken out and turned. It is then put into a stone cheese room and left for a 
week or two and turned every day. At the end of this time the cheese will 
be covered with mold, when it is put in a tepid bath or moistened and the 
mold scraped off, when it goes to the dry room. Here it is turned every day 
until fit for market, say from sixty to ninety days old, or according to the 
demand and price. The Wiltshire cheese is less solid than the Gloucester, 
to which I shall refer hereafter. 

At one of the farms I visited, where sixty cows were kept, and very nice 
stock, too, the product was a trifle over two pounds of curd per day from 
each cow, and one and a-half pounds of butter for each cow per week. 
Cockey's cheese apparatus was in use, which consists of a tub having a 
double bottom, the upper one copper, heat being applied between the two, 
either with hot water or steam ; but generally the old-fashioned tubs hold 
sway. The hoop for pressing the cheese is turned out of a solid block of 
wood, with a bottom to it pierced with holes for the whey to escape. When 
put to press, some eight cheeses are piled up together, one above the other, 
and the pressure applied to the lot at one time. The milk pails are made of 
tin, and hold about twenty-four quarts ; they are formed with a projection or 
handle on one side and are carried upon the head while taking the milk to 
the dairy. 

The Wiltshire dairies are very cleanly. The dairy rooms are built of 
stone, with stone floors and whey vats of lead, and everything kept in the 
neatest possible manner. In this respect they are models, but the amount of 
labor in cheese making is very great, and the dairywomen adhere with perti- 
nacity to the old customs, giving no reason for this waste of labor, except 
that " that is the way we always do." In Wiltshire I found the stock better 
than in Somersetshire, some attention being paid to breeding. Wiltshire 
has a great cheese market at Chippenham. 

THE CHEESE MARKET AT CHIPPENHAM. 

The market place is an open court surrounded by buildings, one side of 
which is open and supported by pillars, thus giving a spacious place for the 
stowing of cheese under cover. The open court is nicely paved, and the 
arcades on either side have a stone floor. The cheese is brought in carts, 
packed loosely in straw, without boxing. They are taken from the cart and 
placed upon the stone floors in the arcades, spread out or piled up. Each 
dairy farmer has his lot together, and they are thus exposed for sale. The 
cheesemongers or dealers come down from London, Bristol, Bath and other 
places, and make their purchases. There is a constant hum of voices and 
tread of feet, as one can readily imagine where a large number of people are 
collected together intent on selling or purchasing, or are here out of curiosity, 
or perhaps to meet persons on other business beside the cheese trade. The 
dealers go aboiit testing the cheese, making their purchases and ordering it 



264 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

to be sent away as sales have been made. No boxes are used in the trans- 
portation of cheese as with us in America. The market days here are twice 
a month, and often, I was told, as much as two or three hundred tons of 
cheese are in the market during the fall sales. There was a considerable 
quantity on sale at the time of my visit, all new cheese, and most of it Wilt- 
shire. The Wiltshire cheese is a small, flat cheese, from four to five inches 
thick, fifteen to sixteen inches in diameter, and taking four to make one hun- 
dred weight (one hundred and twelve pounds). They are inferior to the 
Cheddar, and very much inferior to American factory cheese, and the highest 
prices are only occasionally realized. 

GLOUCBSTEKSHIEB, 

I think there are no statistics giving the number of pounds of cheese 
annually produced in Gloucestershire, but some estimate may be made from 
ofiicial returns of the number of coavs in the county. It is put at 34,744; 
loss from cattle plague up to 21st of April, 116. I understand that the losses 
since that time have not been of much account. The geological features are 
the oolite, the lias and the new red sandstone, the former comprising the 
principal part of the hills and high lands, the lias the more level and the 
latter the richer and deeper soils of the valleys, which are chiefly pasture 
lands, upon which butter, cheese and meat are largely produced. The oolite 
strata in its varied character runs from north to south, forming the Cotswold 
hills. Entering Somersetshire at Lansdown, near Bath, where it furnishes 
the beautiful Bath stone, passing outward into North Somerset, widening 
as it enters Wiltshire, soon after which, in the neighborhood of Westbury, it is 
no longer the surface soil, but becomes loaded with the green sandstone and 
chalk formation, like the snail which bears its shell upon its back. The Cots- 
wold hills are well farmed in the four, five or six course systems, according 
to the capability of the • soil. Wheat, barley and turnips are successfully 
grown. The hills give the name to the Cotswold sheep — which have long 
been bred and fed there — beautiful animals, with white face, and of highly 
improved quality, both as regards meat and wool, the latter being long and 
fine, the fleece weighing from five to ten pounds. A ram will sometimes 
turn ofi" fifteen or sixteen pounds of wool. They are generally heavier in 
mutton than the Downs. 

On the western side of the Cotswold hills, extending to the Severn River, 
and fifteen to twenty miles in length, is what is called the vale of Berkeley. 
It has every appearance of having been, in past time, covered with the sea. 
This valley is the chief dairy district of the county of Gloucester. The native 
cow is of dark color, with a black nose, short legs ; is a thick-set, well-built 
animal ; altogether a very useful beast ; but the Short-Horns and Herefords 
are displacing her. 

In the regular Gloucestershire dairies the cheese is made thin, eight of 
them only weighing one hundred and twenty pounds. They are made twice 



PRJicTiCAL Dairy Husbanbby. 265 

a day, the work beginning about seven o'clock in the morning, and being 
finished about ten or eleven o'clock. At five in the afternoon they commence 
with the evening milk, and finish between eight and nine o'clock. This 
cheese is known in the cheese-consuming world as the famous Berkely cheese. 
If well made it is rich and sweet, and the makers are quite as tenacious of 
their reputation as those Avho make cheese worth from ten to twenty shillings 
per hundred weight more money. Cows are generally kept, more or less, over 
the county except on the uplands. The south and south-west, around the 
neighborhood of Bristol, are the coal meadows. This district is not farmed 
so well, comparatively, as the other sections, from various circumstances ; 
being in the coal district, the surface is uneven and the enclosures small, as 
are also the farms ; besides it is near Bristol, at which place hay, sti'aw and 
milk are continually sold. 

CHEESE APPARATUS AND MODE OF " SINGLE GLOSTER " CHEESE MANUPACTUEE. 

At a nice farm in the southern part of Gloucestershire, which I visited in 
June for the purpose of seeing the operations of making " Single Gloster " 
cheese, the dairy consisted of thirty-five cows. These were Short-Horns, 
large, handsome, but not showing extraordinary capacity for milk. The 
dwelling, dairy and buildings Avere all of stone, large, commodious, and every^ 
thing kept in the neatest manner. The place where the cheese was made was 
a spacious room with stone floor, clean and well ventilated, and as cool and 
sweet an apartment as the most fastidious cheese-maker could desire. The 
utensils or appurtenances for cheese-making consisted of an unpainted tub for 
holding the milk, leaden vats for holding the whey, a circular wire curd- 
breaker, having an upright handle springing from the center, dippers, skim- 
mers, &c., with two box presses for pressing the cheese. The last were 
unlike anything I had ever seen, and consisted of large square boxes moving 
up between standards by means of pulleys and ropes attached to a windlass. 
The boxes were filled with stones, iron, &c., making a weight of several 
hundreds pounds, and applied directly on the cheese. These presses were 
very nicely made of dark wood, and varnished, evidently intended to be orna- 
mental as well as useful. From the manner of their make and the power to 
be applied in raising the weight, the services of a strong man would be 
required. The milk was being made up twice a day, making eleven cheeses 
of fourteen pounds each for every two days, each cheese being about two and 
a-half inches thick by fourteen or fifteen inches broad. There was no heating 
apparatus in the room, and none is required in the " Single Gloster " process 
of cheese-making. As soon as the milk is all deposited in the tub the rennet 
is added, when it is left to coagulate. As soon as properly coagulated it is 
broken up with the wire breaker, by moving it up and down, which has a 
tendency to pulp the curd i*ather than break it, as the word breaking is gener- 
ally understood by our cheese-makers. The mass is then left for the curd to 
settle, and after it has arrived at a proper degree of firmness to be handled 



266 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

the whey is dipped off down to the curd, the tub canted up to drain off what 
whey remains, and the curd gathered to the upper edge of the tub. The 
whey being removed, the curd is cut across and heaped up, and pressed with 
the hands to expel as much of the whey as possible, when it is put to press. 
It remains in press till morning, when it is taken out, turned and salted on 
the outside. It is then i-eturned to the press and goes through the same ope- 
ration from four to six successive days. When taken from the press it is put 
upon the shelf for a few days, to be turned every day, and finally goes to the 
cheese room, when it will be ready for market in two or three months, if 
prices suit. This cheese or drying room is in the upper part of the dwelling 
house, and the cheeses, when taken here, are placed close together on the floor. 

A chance dealer from Bristol, who was present, made a test of the cheeses 
by walking upon them as they lay spread out upon the floor, which we were 
assured was the usual method of determining their firmness and solidity. They 
stood the test of his weight and boots, and were pronounced among the best in 
Gloucestershire. The hoops in which the cheese is pressed are turned out of a 
solid piece of wood, and each has a stationary bottom pierced Avith holes, similar 
to the hoops used in Wiltshire. In one of the presses I counted fifteen cheeses 
piled up one upon another, all of which were being pressed together. I think 
from the above description none of our dairymen will care to make "Single 
Gloster" cheese and I cannot see why people there will continue to keep along 
in the same old rut of their forefathers without making some effort to improve. 

I have now presented some' of the general features of this great district. 
The country is well watered by springs and streams, but no better than, if as 
well as, many parts of the central counties of New York. Where watering 
places are constructed the plan is somewhat different from ours — small ponds 
being more numerous. The pastures produce, perhaps, more feed than with 
us, from several causes. In the first place they are more free from weeds ; 
they are better cared for in top-dressings of manures, while the humidity 
of the climate produces fresher feed and a greater quantity of verdure. 

The permanent pastures have a fine thick sod, filled with a variety of nutri- 
tious grasses, among which the following may be of interest in this connec- 
tion. The sweet-scented vei-nal grass {Anthoxanthum odorato) flowers in 
May, and grows freely in all soils and situations. It is one of the earliest of 
grasses, and the fragrant odor it affords when dried gives to meadow hay 
much of its sweetness. Meadow foxtail {Alopecurus pratensis) flowers in 
May and June. Its early, abundant, leafy produce is much liked by cattle 
and sheep, and renders it one of the most valuable of pasture grasses. It 
forms part of the best pastures and thrives under judicious irrigation. 
Meadow fescue {Festuca pratensis) flowers in June, likes a good soil, and 
does not attain its full growth until three years from the time of sowing. 
The produce is nutritious and abundant, and it forms a uniform and abundant 
turf. Cocks-foot grass {Dactylis glomerata) flowers in June and July, grows 
three feet high and upward, and forms a large portion of all the best natural 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 267 

pastures, and is regarded superior to most grasses in the quantity and quality 
of its produce. Its coarse and tufted character makes it unsuitable for lawns. 
Crested dogstail ( Cynosurus cry status) flowers in July, and is found in all 
pastures. It suffers but little from dry weather, but produces only a moderate 
quantity of fine herbage. Hard-fescue grass {Festuca duriuscula) grows two 
feet high and forms a portion of all dry pastures, and retains a permanent 
verdure. It flowers in June. Sheep fescue {Festuca ovina) is found in all 
dry soils from the sea land to a great elevation ; flowers in June. Meadow 
grass {Poa prate?isis), or Kentucky blue grass. It produces an early, nutri- 
tious herbage, and is regarded as particularly suited to light soils. Rough- 
stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis), fibrous-rooted, rough stalks, forms a 
portion of almost all mixtures for permanent pasture-grasses, and is particu- 
larly desirable in grounds shaded with trees. Timothy is also found in pas- 
tures and meadows, but is not grown to the same extent as with us. Then 
there are the clovers, red and white, which are so largely grown with us ; 
and the Alsike clover [Trifolium hyhridum), a true perennial, very productive 
on moist, rich soils, and will succeed where red clover fails. It is regarded 
by many as superior to white clover in bulk and quality of produce, and equals 
it in duration. These are among the leading grasses ; and in seeding for 
permanent pastures, a compound of the best grasses and clovers is used, 
often as much as two bushels of the light and twelve pounds of the heavy 
seed to the acre. 

I think the question of pastures is better understood in England than with 
us, and it is a point on which we have something to learn from them. I can- 
not say that the quantity of grass from permanent meadows, or those long in 
grass, is larger than is often found with us, but the quality is finer and better 
— that is, the hay has less woody fiber than with us. At Rothamstead — 
Lawes' celebrated experimental farm — my attention was particularly called 
to the fineness of the grass made into hay. The old stocks which had been 
cut down, presented a solid mass of hay almost as fine as hair, and its nutri- 
tive quality must have been a third more than our timothy, on account of less 
waste of woody fiber. 

Allusion has been made to permanent meadows, but generally what we 
term meadows, that is, land devoted to the production of hay, are treated 
very differently from ours. Much of the hay is grown on what is termed the 
four or five course shift. It comes in regular rotation after grain crops. It 
is mowed once or twice, and then broken up for a crop of wheat. Various 
mixtures are sown, and large yields often result. I went upon a splendid, 
meadow in Devonshire, where the yield of grass upon the ground must have 
made at least two and a-half tons of hay per acre, and perhaps more, and it 
was the first crop. The seeding per acre was as follows : Eight pounds of red 
clover ; two pounds of white clover ; four pounds of trefoil ; three pounds of 
Peek's Italian rye-grass. This is not given as an illustration of the best mix- 
ture, but rather as a specimen of what our farmers would term heavy seeding. 



268 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Lands often get more and a greater variety of seeds. Perhaps I am occupy- 
ing too much space by going so minutely into details ; but I feel earnest for 
the success of American farmers, and have thought that it might be of inter- Ml 
est for them to get a little insight into the manner in which dairy farms are ■ 
managed abroad. Perhaps this may be appreciated the more, when they are 
told that a farmer in the dairy regions of England often pays from |3,000 to 
|3,500 per annum in rents and taxation for a two-hundred-acre farm. He 
pays this for the land alone, and gets no use of any personal property Avhat- 
ever. He then stocks it at his own expense. He is at all the cost of uten- 
sils, labor, and of keeping the farm in repair. As the wealthy or " well-to-do " 
farmer, for the most part, never lays his hand to any labor beyond superin- 
tendence, one might naturally conclude, as I did, that pretty shrewd manage- 
ment at least is required to pay this sum, support his establishment, and lay 
up money from his business. 

By the judicious use of capital and the liberal use of fei'tilizers, and by a 
system of mixed farming, he is able to accomplish these results. It is true, 
labor is cheap. He pays his laborers from thirty to forty cents per day, and 
in harvest a little more ; but he does not board them. They have cottages 
— good, substantial buildings — and little gardens. These cottages, like the 
more pretentious mansion of the farmer, are erected by and at the expense of 
the landlord ; but a certain number of people go with the farm, and they pay 
rent to the fai'mer for their cottages, say about a shilling per week. 

The condition of the peasantry is, in many respects, most wretched ; but 
that need not be discussed here. The farmer's position is infinitely above 
them, and he lives, for the most part, the life of a gentleman. He is a man 
who is exjDccted to have some means, say from £8 to £10 per acre ; or, in 
other words, a floating capital of from forty to fifty dollars for every acre of 
his farm. This he uses in his business, purchasing stock and fertilizers, and 
making such improvements as he judges will pay him back remunerative 
profits. And here I cannot do better than introduce the reader to Mr. 
Haeding, of Marksbury, the great exponent of Cheddar cheese-making in 
England. Mr. Harding is perhaps sixty years old, and learned the great and 
essential principles of cheese-making from his ancestors. He has simplified 
the process of manufacture, and helped to reduce it more to a science; but he 
does not claim to be the originator of the Cheddar style. He is an intelli- 
gent, companionable man, with a rich vein of humor in his composition. A 
brief view of his mode of management will serve as an illustration of the 
manner in which dairy farms are conducted in the south of England, although 
in some respects, Mr. Harding's practice differs from that of others. 

MR. Harding's farm. 

The farm may be regarded as of rather inferior land, some of it a com- 
pact, tenacious soil, requiring a four-horse team to plow it. Comparatively, 
he places the farm under the head of middle-class lands, and when he first 



Practical Dairy Husbandrt. 269 

came upon it, it was considered unadapted to tlie dairy. But, for illustration 
it will serve our purpose better to take some extra farm, since a nearer 
approximation will be reached to average results. The farm consists of three 
hundred acres, two hundred of which are in permanent pasture and meadow, 
and one hundred acres arable land. The farm is hilly, and rises from the new 
red sandstone, which is the poorest part, to the white lias, which is level, and 
upon which lies the arable portion, and again rising to the oolite, which is the 
best part of the farm. The permanent grass lands are used alternately for 
pasture and meadow, the change being made annually. Mr. Haeding making 
good cheese, which sells at a high price, believes it more remunerative to 
convert as much as possible of the arable land into milk. A considerable 
portion of the arable land is devoted to grasses that will come early to supply 
the cows in sjDring. The arable land is managed as follows: First crop, 
wheat ; second, turnips, vetches, tares, &c. ; third, barley ; when the land is 
seeded with I'ye-grass one bushel, trefoil, ten pounds, red clover, four pounds, 
white cloA^er, three pounds per acre. Upon these grasses the cows are pastured 
two seasons, when it is broken up in August or September and sown with 
wheat in October, without additional plowing. After the wheat is harvested, 
a portion of the stubble is immediately plowed and sown with winter tares 
for feeding sheep early in spring. Another portion is sown at the same time 
with trifolhitn i7icarnatu')n (Italian crimson clover), another part is sown in 
February with spi'ing tares, and the balance to Swedes and other turnips. 
All this feed is to be consumed for the feeding and fattening of sheep, of 
which from one to two hundred are kept. 

The sheep are purchased in August, at from six to eight months old, at 
prices ranging from seven dollars and a-half to ten dollars each, and the next 
season, after shearing, are sold at from fifteen to twenty dollars each. In 
fattening the sheep, they are hurdled and fed on the turnips, vetches, &c., 
with corn or cake, say of the latter at the rate of half a pound each per day. 
The turnips are grown in drills, with an application of from five to six hun- 
dred pounds of superphosphate per acre, leaving the principal part of the 
farm-yard manures for the permanent grass lands, upon which are kept from 
sixty-five to seventy cows, half-a-dozen heifers, and eight horses. Thirty-five 
dollars per ton are paid for the superphosphate. 

The cows are grades partaking largely of the Short-Horn blood, of good 
size, with a view that, when failing for the dairy, they may be turned to good 
account for making beef. Mr, Harding keeps more stock than he grows hay 
for, in the winter, thinking that grass is far more valuable than hay, and he 
makes up the lack of fodder by giving two parts straw and one of hay, cut 
to chaff, with three or four pounds of oil-cake per day to each animal. The 
cows yield about four hundred and fifty pounds of cheese each annually. 
They " come in milk " in February, and cheese-making commences about the 
first of March. The calves are sold to the butcher when a few days old, as is 
the practice of some of our dairymen. The cows are not kept in barns or 



270 Practical Dairy Husbanbrt. 

close stables as is the practice in New York, but are tied in sheds built of 
stone, the floors nicely paved. In these they take their place during sum- 
mer — night and morning, for milking, and each milker is allotted seven cows. 
Tin pails are used for milking, and the milkers place them on the head when 
carrying the milk to the dairy. 

The pig in this dairy forms an important item of profit. A hundred or 
more are fattened during the year on barley meal mingled with the whey, 
which annually realize about seven dollars and a-half per hundredweight, after 
paying for the meal. The hogs are of the Berkshire breed, and very fine 
ones. They are kept in a nice, spacious stone piggery, cleaned and bedded 
every day. The barn is a large stone building, provided with a water-wheel, 
to which is attached the threshing machine, chaff-cutter and stones for grind- 
ing the grain. The dairy-house is connected with the dwelling, and is a model 
of neatness, being built of stone, and provided with Cocket's apparatus for 
cheese-making, a tolerably good apparatus, but much inferior to our factory 
vats. The milkers are not allowed to come into the dairy, but pour the milk 
into a receiver at the window, which conducts it to a tub. The whey passes 
off through pipes to a cistern in the piggery, where it is pumped for the pigs. 

The production of hay on permanent meadows of this farm is generally at 
the rate of three thousand eight hundred pounds to the acre. Farm-yard 
manures are not alloAved to accumulate in the yard, but are taken to the field 
where they are to be used and there piled. Here it is turned until pretty 
well rotted, when it is spread upon the lands to be mowed. It is applied at 
the rate of twenty cartloads per acre, and brushed down fine. 

Results. — ^Under this system the annual average receipts and expenditures 
are as follows, the calculations of course, being upon a gold standard : 

Cheese sold $5,000 

Profit on sheep, including wool and mutton 500 

Profit on pigs 600 

Grain sold 1,800 

Calves and butter 250 

Total .' 8,150 

The expenses are : , 

For rent $3,500 

For tithes 450 

For poor rates and taxes 400 

For labor 1,750 

5,100 

Leaving an annual profit or balance of 3,050 

The number of male hands employed, including boys, is ten. They get 
on the average thirty-three cents and three pints of cider each per day. In 
harvest the men get fifty cents per day ; these sums always including the cost 
of board, since in England the hands do not live in the farmer's family, as 
with us, but find themselves in board. The two girls in the house are paid 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 271 

thirty and fifty dollars per year and board. These figures were given to me 
by Mr. Haeding as his average result of profits. To this should be added, 
doubtless, the value of the food consumed in the family. No items were 
given for beef sold, since these were made to balance depreciation of stock, 
purchase of oil-cake, &c. No comment need be made on the foregoing, 
because among practical men each will make the necessary comparisons and 
draw his own conclusions as to whether his own or this is the best system of 
dairy farming. But if any can show a better balance sheet, in gold, from a 
poor farm of this size, he is doing well. 

CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING. 

Having described the Gloster and Wilts process of cheese-making, I will 
say something of the Cheddar process. The improved English Cheddar 
cheese is regarded by Englishmen as the finest cheese that is made anywhere. 
It suits the general taste better than any other description of cheese manu- 
factured. The fact that Cheddar always commands the highest prices ; that 
there is an immense demand for it ; and that its manufacture has become 
more scientific and thorough than that of any other kind, make it important 
for us to study its character. I was among the Cheddar dairymen for more 
than two weeks, studying the process of manufacture, and saw some of their 
most noted dairies. I was at Mr. Gibbon's, who was awarded the gold 
medal for the best dairy at the international exhibition, at Paris, and at Mr. 
Harding's of Marksbury, Mr. McAdam's of Gorsly Hill, Cheshire, and 
others, and after having seen all the difierent styles of cheese in Great 
Britain, I am of the opinion that the Cheddar is the only process from which 
American dairymen can obtain suggestions of much practical utility. 

I may here remark that John Bull, like his blood relation Jonathan, is a 
man of strong prejudices, and will often prefer a Cheddar cheese of no better 
quality than good American at ten to fifteen shillings per hundred weight 
more in price, simply because the English Cheddar has a better reputation. 
This feeling has very much to do in regulating the difference of price between 
the best samples of cheese of the two countries. But laying all prejudice 
aside I must, in truth, say that we have not yet been able to surpass in excel- 
lence the fine specimens of English Cheddar. It is a very high standard of 
cheese, and is deserving of all the encomiums which it has received from time 
to time. The quantity of extra Cheddar made in England is comparatively 
small, and its peculiar excellence has been rarely reached in Amei'ican dairies. 
Its requisites may be briefly summed up in the following points: 1. Mildness 
and purity of flavor ; 2. Quality, which consists of mellowness or richness 
under the tongue ; 3. Long keeping qualities ; 4. Solidity or freedom from 
eyes or holes ; 5. An economical shape as regards shrinkage, handling and 
cutting. 

It is not within the range of a brief paper like this to go minutely into all 
the details of Cheddar cheese-making, but rather to present points of differ- 




272 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

ence between their points and our own. In the first place, English dairymen 
have a cleaner and better flavored milk than generally obtains with us. The 
milking is performed with great nicety in tin pails. The milk rooms are 
perfect models of neatness. They have stone floors and the joints of the 
flagging are cemented together, so that no slops or decomposed milk can have 
an entrance. They are situated in a cool, airy place, and the walls are of 
stone or of hollow brick, thus rendering them cool and of even temperature. 
Every part is well ventilated, and out of the reach of disagreeable or fetid 
odors. The floor, the utensils and cheese aj^paratus are kept as sweet and 
clean as the tables and crockery of the most fastidious housekeeper. 

This condition of things I found universal wherever I went among the 
dairymen— at the royal dairy, near the Queen's palace at Windsor Castle, and 
radiating thence through all parts of England. Nothing connected with 
cheese-making abroad struck me with more force and admiration than this 
perfect neatness and cleanliness of the dairy. In this respect they are greatly 
in advance of us ; and in my opinion it is one of the chief reasons why they 
are able to obtain that fine, clean flavor which is a distinguished character- 
istic of their choice cheese. 

. There is nothing, perhaps, which indicates the progress and skill of our 
manufacturers more than the fact that they are able to take imperfect milk 
from the hands of patrons, manipulate it among the fetid odors of whey slops 
and decomposed milk, and yet turn out a cheese that will compete Avith the 
great bulk of English make. But these conditions will not and cannot pro- 
duce the fine, delicate flavor of the best Cheddar, and it is one reason why 
there is such a great bulk of American cheese condemned abroad as " not 
just right in flavor." Now this putrid inoculation does not show its Avhole 
character at first, but, like the insidious poison in the blood, increases from 
week to week, until it puts on a distinctive feature which spoils all the good 
material with which it comes in contact. 

I saw American cheese abroad, perfect in shape and color, rich in quality, 
splendidly manufactured, and it had a bright, handsome appearance, that 
would have placed it on an equality with the best in the world ; but the trier 
showed a flavor that could be plainly traced to a bad or imperfect condition 
of the milk before manipulation. I have been extremely mortified, while 
testing cheese abroad, to catch the taste or smell of putrid rennet and of the 
stables. This is one point of diflTerence between the dairy practice of the two 
nations. In the Cheddar process the milk is at a low temperature— from 
seventy-eight to eighty degrees— using some whey with the rennet, according 
to the condition of the milk. After coagulation is perfected, which takes 
from forty to sixty minutes, the curd is cut in large checks, and soon after 
they commence breaking with a wire breaker attached to a long handle. The 
breaking is at first slow and gentle, and is continued till the curd is minutely 
divided. This is efiected before any additional heat is applied. They claim 
that the curd cannot be properly broken at ninety or above ninety degrees, and 



Pb ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 2T3 

that there is a better separation of the whey and condition of the curd by 
breaking minutely at about seventy-five or eighty degi'ees without an increase 
of heat during the process. This process of minute breaking in the early 
stages of the curd appeal's to me to result in loss of butter, and this is the 
chief reason, I think, why Cheddars have less butter in their composition than 
our best American. That it does not result from inferior milk is shown from 
the quantity of Avhey butter manufactured. The breaking at Mr. Haeding's 
usually occupied a full hour. The heat is raised in scalding to one hundred 
degrees. Their cheese apparatus is inferior to ours, and hence I think that 
part of the process is not capable of being done so well as with us, since: heat 
is not applied so evenly to all parts of the mass ; but from this point there is 
a wide ditference in the treatment of the curds. When the curd has reached 
a firm consistency, and the whey shows a slightly acid change — a change so 
slight as to be detected only by the experienced observei' — it is immediately 
drawn and the curd heaped up in the bottom of the tub. I am not sure but 
this early drawing of the whey is an improvement. 

When in London I had some conversation with Dr. Yoelckeii, the cele- 
brated chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society. Among other things, he 
said : — " One of the greatest faults of cheese-makers is in the application of 
heat. Many use too high heat. The lower the temperature that can be used, 
and the more evenly it can be applied, the better flavor will obtain to the 
cheese. Another point of importance in cheese-making, and one not generally 
understood, is in relation to the whey. It should be drawn off, got rid of just 
as soon as possible, or as soon as consistent with the necessary operations." 
He would draw the whey sweet. The reason he gave was, that " you can 
never tell what matter you have or what you are dealing with in the whey. 
It may contain taints of the worst character. You cannot well determine the 
degree of its acidity, and hence great risks are run in steeping the curd for a 
long time in the fluid." He would prefer to draw the whey as early as possi- 
ble and allow the curd to undergo the proper change and arrive at maturity 
heaped up in the bottom of the vat. 

Soon after the whey is drawn and the curd heaped, it is cut across in 
pieces a foot or more square and thrown again in a heap to facilitate drainage 
and develope further acidity. It remains in this condition for half-an-hour, 
the whey meanwhile flowing slowly from the heap, when it is taken out of 
the cheese tub and placed in the sink or cooler. It is then split by the hand 
into thin flakes and spread out to cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly 
acid smell, and is slightly sour to the taste. It is left here to cool for fifteen 
minutes, when it is turned over and left for the same length of time, or until 
it has the peculiar mellow or flaky feel desired. It is then gathered up and 
put to press for ten minutes, when it is taken out, ground in a curd-mill, and 
salted at the rate of two pounds salt to the hundred weight (one hundred and 
twelve pounds) of curd. It then goes to press, and is kept under pressure 
two or three days. The curd, when it goes to press, has a temperature of 



274 Practical Dairy Husbanbrt. 

from sixty to sixty-five degreees, and when it is in the sink it is preferred not 
to get below this point. A proper temperature is retained in the curd during 
the various parts of the process, in cool weather, by throwing over it a thick 
cloth. It will be seen that, the whey being disposed of at an early stage, the 
attention of the manufacturer is to be directed only to one substance — the 
curd. By draining the whey and expelling it under the press, and then 
grinding, a uniform incorporation of this material is effected. The cooling 
of the curd before going to press, and the removal of the cheese after the 
pressure, to a cheese-room, where an even temperature is kept up, differing 
but little from that of the cheese when taken from the press, effects a gradual 
transformation of the parts into that compact, mellow, flaky condition which 
is characteristic of the Cheddar, and at the same time preserves its milky or 
nutty flavor. 

Now, apparently, there is nothing difficult in the process ; but the great 
art in this as in other methods of cheese-making, is to understand the condi- 
tion of the milk and the state of the curds during their various manipulations. 
These cannot be described, but can only be learned by experience. The pro- 
cess, however, is more easily acquired than that usually practiced at the 
factories, since the whey being got rid of, the curd is placed under better 
control of the operator, and the pressing, grinding and salting must, in this 
respect, make a more uniform product. We can scarcely yet appreciate the 
part that chemistry plays in the manufacture of cheese. We use a chemical 
agent — rennet — the nature of which even the most learned chemists do not 
fully understand. We note the changes that this produces in the milk and 
manipulate it in its new condition. We then employ heat, another agent, 
and develope an acid ; then another agent, salt ; and what wonder that, in all 
these conditions and changes, the careless and unskillful operator should fail 
in the quality of the article which he produces or the standard which he set's 
out to reach ? 

The most profound chemists are often thwarted in their operations by 
inexplicable conditions which, at first sight, seem easy of solution. Thus, for 
instance, take four well-known substances, viz., grape-sugar, corn-sugar, 
starch, and wood, each of which is made up of only three elements, carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, which it must seem easy to use so that either of these 
substances could be converted into the others. There is very little difference, 
it will be seen, in the composition of any of these substances, and yet how 
widely different are they to our senses. It would seem a very simple thing 
to convert one of these substances into another by merely adding or subtrac- 
ting an element, yet we find that the most expert chemists experience the 
greatest difficulty in bringing about a result which nature is constantly 
accomplishing in her silent laboratories. The more we can reduce cheese- 
making to a science, and confine it within certain rules, the better will be our 
practice and the more uniform our product. It may not be advisable to adopt 
any one system exclusively, since fine cheese can be made by various methods ; 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 275 

but the study of the cheese-maker should be to seize upon a good point when- 
ever he can find it, and combine it in his own practice. Mr. Harding believes 
a sharp-cutting instrument in breaking the curd is injurious, and that the curd 
should be allowed to split apart according to its natural grain ; other persons 
in England, quite as good cheese-makers, believe in sharp-cutting imple- 
ments ; of these I might mention Dr. Voelcker of London, and Mr. McAdam 
of Gorsly Hill, who has not only written well on cheese-making, but has 
done much in introducing the Cheddar system into Scotland and Cheshire. 
Of this, however, we may assure ourselves : by no system can good cheese be 
made unless the manufacturer studies his business, and learns, by close appli- 
cation, by observation and experience, the changes that are going on in the 
process with the whey and curds, and can properly manipulate them. 

CHESHIRE CHEESE-MAKIJiTG. 

I suppose that many of our cheese-makers would hardly suspect that a 
really fine, delicious cheese could be made by the following process, which is 
the one in general practice in Cheshire ; and yet some of this cheese cannot 
be surpassed in flavor and excellence. The Cheshire mode of cheese-making 
is somewhat peculiar, and, to an American, would be called decidedly anti- 
quated. The night's milk is usually set in pans and added to the morning's 
mess, when it is set with rennet at a temperature of about seventy-five 
degrees. Often no heat is applied — the morning's milk being sufficiently 
warm to keep the mass up to the desired temperature for setting. After the 
rennet is applied, the coagulation is perfected in about an hour, when it is 
carefully broken up with a wire or tin curd-cutter, of similar make to the old 
American curd-cutter. 

The breaking being perfected, and the curd becoming sufficiently firm, 
Avithout any additional heat being applied, the whey is dipped offi The curd 
is then lifted into a drainer or kind of sink, where the whey can drain ofl* 
more thoroughly, and from time to time the curd is cut across and heaped up, 
so as to facilitate a more thorough separation of the whey. It is then salted, 
by guess, and ground in a curd-mill, when it is put into the hoop, but not 
immediately to press. 

The hoops filled with curd, are set in a warm place for a day or so, generally 
in a kind of oven constructed for the purpose; and, on the second day are 
put under press. Here they are kept several days, as in the Wiltshire and 
Gloucestershire districts. The hoops have no followers. They have a bottom 
pierced with holes, which is stationary. A strip of tin, four or five inches 
wide, is placed about the curd on the inside of the hoop, or above it, so as to 
raise the curd above the top of the hoop. A board is now thrown or placed 
on top of the curd, and as the press is applied, the tin sinks down with the 
curd until it is pressed even with the hoop. If the cheese is not found to be 
solid enough, another hoop of less hight, is used, and the tin put around that 
portion above the hoop, and pressed in a similar manner. Many of the 



276 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

presses are nothing but large square blocks of stone raised by a screw. They 
are rude affairs. The bed-pieces on some are of stone, with a flue beneath 
for conducting heat, in order to keep the cheese warm while pressing. The 
milk is worked up into curd, and the utensils cleaned up every day by 
twelve o'clock M. 

It was really a matter of surprise to find that fine cheese could be made by 
this process, where everything is done by guess, and where all the operations 
are so different from our method. But a great deal of poor cheese is made in 
the Cheshire dairies, and as a whole is inferior to our factory make. That 
which is the best is as fine in flavor and quality as any cheese made, and will 
command the highest prices. The texture of Cheshire cheese is diffei*ent 
from the Cheddar, being what is termed " open meated," that is, loose in 
texture without being porous. Their best cheese appears richer in butter 
than the Cheddar. 

I have merely given the outlines of the Cheshire mode of cheese making, 
as a matter of curiosity. In my judgment there is nothing in the process 
adapted to America, we being at least fifty years ahead in our appliances 
and mode of manufacturing. I must say this, however, in favor of Cheshire 
dairymen : everything connected with the dairy is kept scrupulously clean. 
The floors, the utensils, and every part of the dairy are sweet and clean. 
And here, perhaps, is the secret, or at least a part of it, of the fine, clean 
flavor of their best cheese. During a portion of the time the Cheshire cheese 
is undergoing the process of curing, the cheese is placed on straw or hay 
upon the floor of the curing room. 

APPEAEANCfi AND COMPAKATIVB MERITS OF AMERICAN CHEESE ABROAD. 

Having now described the manufacture of the leading styles of English 
cheese, it may be well to say something in regard to the appearance of Amer- 
ican cheese in England, and what is thought of it in the foreign markets. I 
went into neaiiy all the principal market towns in England from the south to 
the north, and heard hundreds of people discuss the merits and faults of 
American cheese at the storehouses, the shops and at the table. I took much 
pains to get at the true state of feeling in the country, and I think I may 
safely say that American cheese to-day, as a whole, has more quality and is 
better manufactured than the bulk of English cheese. 

I have given them the credit of producing a limited quantity of cheese of 
the finest type that has ever been reached by any manufacture, but the quantity 
is comparatively small, and when the whole bulk is considered, there is 
nothing like the richness and uniformity of that from our factories. This is 
not only my own opinion, but that of many of the best judges of cheese in 
Great Britain. I have been at hotels where American cheese is always pur- 
chased in preference to English, and I have been amused to hear Englishmen 
contend that no such cheese could be produced in America, and nowhere else 
except in the best dairies of England, but who were forced to give way on 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 271 

pointing out to them the bandage, which is an indisputable proof of American 
manufacture. Country dealers, cotters, middlemen, and shippers, admit that 
the highest grades of our factory cheese have more quality and are superior 
to the general run of English make. 

I have often heard dealers declare in a spirit of vexation that if the Amer- 
icans continue to progress in the ratio of the last foiu- years, two or three 
years more will place their cheese at the top of the market, and English make 
must rank secondary. They say the Cheshire dairymen are " dough-heads " 
not to try to keep pace with modern improvements. I have seen a dealer 
look at American and English cheese side by side, and while admitting that 
the American was in every resjDect the best, take the English at a higher 
price, because, as he said, some of his customers had such foolish prejudices 
that they would not try the American, and therefore could not judge of its 
quality. A leading dealer in Manchester told me he had many times tried to 
introduce American cheese among certain of his customers, and that they 
would not purchase. By and by, when they sent up an order, he would slip 
in a few of nice gi*ade factory' make, and after that the customer would be 
eager to purchase, declaring he never cut up better cheese. 

Now, this is the condition of things all over England ; there is prejudice 
to overcome, because formerly our cheese was of bad character, and there is a 
feeling that it is of such perishable nature that it will spoil if not immediately 
consumed. These remarks apply to the nice grades of cheese. There is 
another class of our cheese which comes into market that does great injury to 
sales. It is cheese that is rich and well made but of bad flavor. This, and 
large shipments of inferior make,the accumulated refuse from good and indif- 
ferent lots which cannot be sold alone, are mixed up with good samples 
and shipped abroad to clean out New York storehouses. 

These lots drag on the market ; they are constantly accumulating, and 
sales are forced, which breaks the market, besides carrying a prejudice where- 
ever they go, against American cheese. As to the outward appearance of 
American cheese, as I saw it abroad, it is generally good. Of course some 
of it comes to hand soft, melted, and in wretched condition, but generally the 
great bulk of factory make comes in store quite as bright and handsome as does 
the English manufacture. Many of the large dealers told me they had never 
had American cheese come to market with handsomer outward appearance 
than this year's (1866) make. And I think in getting the comparative merits 
of the cheese of the two nations we have often been misled and wrongly 
informed. Great condemnation has been made of our poor cheese, all of 
which was well deserved, but while great stress has been laid upon this, there 
has been a studied care to conceal the merits of our best goods. This is but 
natural. Men engage in the cheese trade to make money ; they run great 
risks, and cannot be expected to post others up to their own disadvantage. 
The laws of trade are " to buy cheap and sell dear ;" and so, after all, perhaps, 
they are not so much to blame. 



278 Practical Dairy Husbandry, 

Some of the dealers, acting in concert with, parties in New York, take 
great pains to keep factories which make prime cheese, in ignorance of the 
fact. The factory names are erased from the boxes, and so customers are 
supplied with a line of cheese which they can only trace to the private brand 
of the dealer. Some have acquired in this way an enviable reputation for 
handling choice American cheese, and have made largely by the practice. It 
is a great damage to the factories, since other dealers are kept ignorant of 
the brands, and cannot enter into competition for the purchase, I know of 
no way for this to be remedied except by branding the name of the factory 
on the bandage. Perhaps a good way also would be to have the name of the 
factory neatly cut in rather broad letters upon the pressing follower, so that 
the cheese when pressed will show the name of the factory in raised letters. 
There is no difficulty in this, and no hurt will result to the cheese. I have 
seen samples of English cheese where elaborate figures were raised upon the 
surface in the manner suggested, but I would not advise any " gingerbread 
work " — nothing but plain carving. 

STYLES OF CHEESE DEMANDED. 

The styles of cheese demanded for the trade will depend somewhat upon 
the market for which they are intended. In London small Cheddar shapes 
of forty, fifty, sixty, and seventy pounds are popular, and will command an 
extra price over cheese of large size of the same quality. The true Cheddar 
shape is fifteen and a-half inches in diameter by twelve inches in hight, and 
by preserving this proportion for larger or smaller cheese that style is obtained. 
Cheddars are made varying in size from those named up to eighty and one 
hundred pounds, but the larger are not so common. A limited number of 
those weighing one hunded pounds would readily find sale. Those weighing 
about seventy pounds are not objectionable, but the smaller sizes are of 
readier sale, and often on account of their size bring better prices. It costs 
more, however, to manufacture small cheeses, and there is greater loss in 
shrinkage ; and this ought to enter into the account in determining the size 
that will be most profitable. It would be well for factories to make two sizes 
of Cheddars, regulating each somewhat in accordance with their own con- 
venience. The Cheddar shapes are popular all over England, and therefore 
may be regarded as best adapted as a general rule for our factories to make 
for exportation. 

There is another style called the Derby shape, which, when made of fine 
quality, brings the highest prices. It is a small, flat cheese, fourteen to fifteen 
inches in diameter, and two and a-half to three inches thick, and weighing 
twenty-five to thirty pounds. If care be taken in boxing, two cheeses might 
be put in a box, and thus the expense on that score lessened. There should 
be two heavy scale boards between the cheese, and none but well-made, 
substantial boxes used. There is a moderate demand for our old-fashioned 
shaped cheese — that is, a cheese half as high as its diameter, and weighing 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 279 

from sixty to eighty pounds, but it should not exceed one hundred pounds. 
In Livei'pool a variety of styles are worked oif readily. Several of the 
dealers there told me they had no difficulty in disposing of cheese weighing 
one hundred and twenty pounds to one hundred and fifty pounds, providing 
it was all right as to quality and flavor ; but I am satisfied, after going among 
the country dealers in difierent parts of England, that preference is always 
given to cheese of smaller size when the other qualities are satisfactory. 

COLOR. 

The matter of color is a question which has long occupied the attention 
of American dairymen, and upon which very indistinct notions have been 
entertained. This is not to be wondered at when the different markets in 
England give preference to a variety of shades, and different dealers ask only 
for the color of their particular market. The Londoner likes a cheese of con- 
sidei'able color, something like the rich shade of butter made when the dande- 
lions are in bloom. It must be clear and pure ; not lemony or dirty, or mot- 
tled through the cheese, but a rich shade of cream that gives a pleasing effect 
to the eye, thus serving to highten the imagination that a delicious morsel 
is before you. 

London is the grand metropolis of the world, where wealth is unbounded. 
The best articles of food readily find a market here, and command the highest 
prices of any in the kingdom. If they can only get the hest they are willing 
to pay for it, and this is the reason why choice cheese never goes begging at 
top prices. When I went through the Manchester cheese markets they told 
me that colored cheese was a drug and did not suit that market. A very 
extensive dealer had just returned from Liverpool disappointed in not obtain- 
ing a supply of pale-colored cheese. In prices, quality and shaj^e, he said, 
there was no difficulty in being suited, but his customers insisted upon an 
uncolored article, and as that was not to be had he did not purchase. It was 
in this man's storehouses that I saw some of the Herkimer county, New York, 
"coarse curds," and they were commended for their texture and quality. 
There are large quantities of pale-colored cheese made in England, and con- 
siderable of the high-priced Cheddar has no color except that which results 
from the natural condition of the milk. 

I went down to Chippenham to see the great annatto manufacturer, Mr. 
Nichols. His preparation bears the reputation of the best in England, and 
I thought it might be worth while to have him send over samples, and thus 
have an article that was approved by English dealers. Mr. Nichols was 
willing to send out samples on my assurance that they would be properly 
distributed ; but when I reached London I learned from the chemists a secret 
which is worth a good many thousand dollars to American dairymen. It is, 
that all preparations of annatto depend for their excellence, not so much upon 
any patent for dissolving or cutting the crude annatto as upon the purity of 
the annatto itself. All the best English liquid annatto is cut with potash, so 



280 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

that American dairymen can just as well make their own coloring material as 
to send abroad at great expense for the English ai'ticle. But it is important 
that we obtain Sl pure article, and this can only be secured by purchasing of a 
reliable person who is a good judge of it. If you use a bad article you are 
sure to get a bricky, uneven color, which is so objectionable, and which 
reduces the price of cheese. 

BANDAGES, BOXES, ETC. 

In regard to bandaging and boxing I may remark that no cheese should 
be made in America for shipping abroad without having a bandage upon it, 
and without being put up in a strong box with heavy scale boards. I have 
seen considerable quantities of English cheese in the storehouses split open at 
the sides, a prey to skippers, and upon which losses were sustained. The 
Cheddar dairymen put a coarse linen bandage upon their cheese during the 
process of curing. It is brought round tight and temporarily secured. Some 
work eyelet holes at the ends of the bandage and bring it snugly about the 
cheese by lacing, as you would fasten a shoe upon the foot. These bandages 
are stripped off when the cheese goes to market. 

The cheeses would be better protected if they had permanent bandages, on 
our plan, and some of the English dairymen advocate its introduction in their 
dairies. By not bandaging something might, perhaps, occasionally be gained 
in helping the English dealer to deceive his customers by palming off our 
cheese as of English manufacture ; but good factories would lose their iden- 
tity, and the loss from breakage and other sources would overbalance by far, 
this advantage. Besides, it should be our object to make for American cheese 
a reputation that shall stand unchallenged as the best in the world. 

DEFECTS IJf AMEEICAIf CHEESE BAD FLAVOR, ETC. 

We come to •consider the two leading defects in American cheese — porosity 
and bad flavor ; and the last may be said to-day to overbalance all the other 
defects put together, two or three times over. I need not waste time upon 
that character of cheese known as soft, spongy, or salvy, or the poor grades 
which come from carelessness, inefficiency, or ignorance in manufacture. 
Good cheese-makers knoAV at once how these may be corrected, but I refer to 
the better class of cheese made at factories. The English acknowledge that 
the American factories stand unrivaled as sending out a cheese full of meat 
— that is, full of butter or rich in quality. They speak in high terms of the 
improvements that have been made in texture, firmness and solidity ; but to 
see a cheese handsome in appearance, the meat having scarcely any objec- 
tionable feature to the eye or finger, yet tinder the nose a disagreeable odor, 
is what they cannot well understand. The large exportation of this poor, 
indifferent, or bad-flavored cheese, more than anything else, breaks prices and 
does immense damage. 

The causes of bad flavor in cheese are various — insufficient and uneven 
salting; a faulty separation of the whey from the curds before going to 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 281 

press and while pressing ; putting the curds to press hot ; high heat and a 
rapid manipulation of the curds, getting them in press before the proper 
chemical changes have been effected ; but the chief causes of bad flavor in 
well-manufactured cheese, as I saw it abroad, are, in my opinion, bad milk, 
bad rennet, and bad curing of the cheese. I am satisfied that the cool, 
even climate in England, and the excellent condition of the milk, together 
with the uniform temperature of their curing rooms, enable them to succeed 
where we often fail. We have a hot-bed climate to contend with, and milk is 
often spoiled when it reaches the factory. If our dairy farmers would only 
look upon this matter in its proper light, instead of laying all the blame of 
bad-flavored cheese upon the manufacturer, there would be some hope of 
improvement. They send to the factory tainted milk and demand from it a 
perfect cheese. They impose upon the manufacturer conditions which no skill 
has yet been able to surmount. High skill and great experience in manipu- 
lating milk, together with favorable weather, and the putting the cheese in 
market at the right moment, may enable the manufacturer to counteract 
in part the faults of tainted milk ; but with intensely hot weather, and under 
unfavorable circumstances, it is beyond his art. Bad rennet and tainted milk 
are prominent causes of the early decay of our cheese. 

We are told that American cheese will decay early. I have seen American 
cheese in England more than a year old, perfect in flavor and in the best pres- 
ervation, but it was not made in hot weather. The cheese made in July this 
year, 1866, and sent to England, was all of it, more or less of bad flavor. 
The complaint was universal, and against some of the most noted factories in 
America. We must look upon these things from the practical side. I will not 
deceive the dairymen of America with a fine-spun theory. We have been 
greatly led astray in regard to this matter of flavor — led to believe that the 
people of the Old World had discovered some wonderful process which would 
ensure a perfect cheese under all conditions of the milk ; but I found the 
leading feature of their success was in cleanliness and an untainted condition 
of the milk. 

It is well known that milk not divested of its animal odor, and closely 
confined in hot weather, soon becomes putrid. Cheese manufacturers tell me 
that milk often comes to the factory having a most fetid and sickening odor. 
In extremely hot weather, when cows have been exercised or unduly excited 
the milk is often of a rank odor as soon as drawn. The practice of putting 
warm milk in tight cans and conveying it a long distance to the factory is 
objectionable, especially in hot weather. Here is the commencement of bad 
flavor. The good milk is inoculated with putrid matter, which shows itself 
sooner or later, and carries with it decay like any other decomposition. Some 
plan should be adopted for cooling the milk, or exposing it so that the animal 
odor may pass off, especially in hot, sultry weather. I feel certain, from my 
observations both here and abroad, that this is a leading cause of bad flavor, 
and hence the practice of the Cheddar dairymen in getting rid of the whey 



282 Pe ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 

as early as possible, and the exposure of the curd a long time to the atmos- 
phere, is founded upon philosophical principles. It is important to the dairy- 
interest of America that a reputation be maintained for producing the finest- 
flavored and best cheese made in the world, and, under our improved system 
of manufacture, with proper care as to the purity of milk, this will be of easy 
accomplishment. 

Again, the cheese-producing sections of the Union are being developed so 
rapidly that competition every year must be greater and greater. Every 
factory should now establish a reputation for "extra fine goods." They 
should keep the best manufacturers in the country. Make it an inducement 
for them to stay with you. High skill and experience command ample remu- 
neration the world over. Old and established factories can aflEbrd to pay for it, 
rather than let new districts pick ofi" their best cheese-makers. The London 
dealers complain that there is too little probability of factories sending forward 
a uniform brand of prime cheese year after year. They want a brand that 
can be relied upon, and when they find such will pay an extra price for 
it. The curing rooms ought to be arranged so that the temperature may be 
controlled. The curing rooms of England have walls of stone or hollow 
brick. The climate is cooler, more moist and less variable than ours. These 
facts ought to afford suggestions in the construction of our curing-houses. 
There is another way in which flavor is lost ; the shipment of cheese in hot 
weather, to lie in New York until heated through and through, and then 
stowing away in the vessel with cargoes of grain, oil-cakes, or some other 
freight from which taints are absorbed. Much of our nice cheese is injured 
in this. way. In Bristol, Bath, London, Chester, Liverpool, Manchester— in 
fact, all over England, the commercial storehouses for cheese are well con- 
structed for the purpose of preserving flavor. They have stone floors, are 
cool and well ventilated. Cheese that comes in bad condition is often taken 
out of the boxes, or the covers removed, and then laid upon the floor to cool. 

The fine compact texture of English cheese, in my opinion, results, in a 
great measure, from their process of expelling the whey, grinding in the curd- 
mill, salting and pressing. I may remark that while porousness is an objec- 
tion, if the texture is not of a honey-comh character, but will fill the trier 
with a tolerably compact mass, dealers do not urge a reduction of price, if the 
flavor and quality are perfect. Extreme porosity shows a defect in manufac- 
ture, and carries with it the impression that the cheese will sooner go to 
decay, and is therefore dangerous to handle, requiring quick sales. 

THE PROSPECTS OF THE ENGLISH MARKET. 

In closing, a word may be ofiered in reference to the prospect of future 
exportation and prices. The English are a great cheese-eating people. We 
have no conception of the extent to which this food enters into general con- 
sumption. Those who can afford to eat a good article purchase the best, and 
the poor take up with that which is inferior and bad. I have seen tons and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 283 

tons of the most worthless stuff, apparently fit only for the pigs, in the shops 
and public markets, and it had a rapid sale. The cutters are extremely 
expert. They use a thin, circular knife, like a half moon, having an upright 
handle springing from the centre, and with this they cut the cheese upon the 
counter. They also use a fine wire, witk handles at each end, for splitting a 
lai'ge cheese. I have been surprised at the accuracy with which they will cut 
the different weights. The crumbs are laid on one side, to be used for 
balancing the scales. There is an immense demand for inferior or low-priced 
cheese. If we could manufacture cheese so as to sell on the counter at four- 
pence to sixpence per j^ound, I think they would take our whole product. 
Cheese does not come upon the table with pastry, as with us, but is brought 
on as a separate and last course. A half or a quarter of a cheese, placed upon 
a silver dish, with a clean, white napkin under it, is set upon the table and 
cut as desired. I think there must be a good foreign demand for American 
cheese for some years to come. The production has been cut off in the north- 
ern districts of England. The cattle plague has been terrible in its ravages 
through this section. In Cheshire and the adjoining counties the losses have 
been fearful. The Cheshire people feel very melancholy, and many of the 
farmers are unable to pay their rents. Some of them are trying sheep- 
farming, but with indifferent results. They have been long a dairy people 
and understand the management of cows. I am convinced they will go back 
to dairy farming when the cattle plague shall be effectually eradicated — and 
that appears now to be almost accomplished — but they will hardly get estab- 
lished again for a year or two. They will not abandon dairying till we can 
furnish cheese so cheaply as to drive them from the mai'ket. The cost of 
transportation and the high prices of labor, and heavy taxation, are against the 
production of a cheap cheese on this side, at least in the older States. Holland, 
too, enters into competition with us. She is now shipping to England 80,000,- 
000 pounds of cheese per annum. Last year (1865) the quantity imported was 
nearly 73,000,000 pounds. The passage can be made in a day, and the cost 
of exportation is a mere trifiie. Their cheese is very good, but not equal to 
ours ; but they are improving every year in quality. They make three styles 
of cheese, which are popular among the poorer classes. The Edams and 
Middlebaes are round, like a cannon ball, and weigh from six to twelve 
pounds. The Goudars are a small, flat cheese, of about twenty pounds 
weight. The agricultural laborers like Edams, as they can take a cheese into 
the field and cut it without waste. These cheeses sell at from eight to ten 
shillings per hundred weight, below American. There is less difference 
between the Derby Goudar and the American, the former often selling within 
four shillings of the price of ours. 

Our futm-e successes will depend upon our making fine cheese, and getting 
it to market at cheap rates. Something might be done in opening up new 
markets. The English export cheese to Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, 
Brazil, and various other points.. Something should be done by the cheese 



284 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



makers and shippers in the way of regulating exportations. If we could 
give England a steady supply, without pushing forward an immense quantity 
to clog the market, prices would be maintained, and greater profits realized. 

The following table gives the iiiunber of packages of cbeese shipped from New Yorlt to 
Liverpool, from May, 1862, to September, 1866, made up so that the comparative 
weeidy shipments of the different years may be seen at a glance : 

Weekly Exports of cheese from New York to Liverpool. 



Week Ending 



1862. 



Packages. 



Packages. 



1864. 



Packages. 



May 



June 



July 



August 



15. 
22. 

29. 

September 5. 
12. 
19 
26. 

October 3 . 
10. 
17. 
24 
31. 

November 7. 
14. 
21. 

28. 

December 5 
12. 
19. 
26 



January 



16. 
23. 
30. 

February 6. 
13. 
20. 

27. 



March 



April 



2. 

9. 
16. 
23. 
80. 



Total,. 



2,120 

857 

1,726 

1,202 



1,643 
3,280 
6,362 
7,756 



7,107 
13,441 

6.961 
27,483 



35,195 



5,485 
37,309 
24,449 



30,315 
19,255 
24,442 
14,1.30 



8,146 
24,203 
15,038 
18,886 
11,558 



24,. 302 
24,196 
13,705 
18,840 



938 
8,450 
8,329 
9,843 



1863. 
12,141 



3,475 
7,296 
14,122 



886 
9,587 
1,295 
1,798 



929 
4,164 
3,428 
1,454 



4,166 
4,348 
11,762 
2,742 
3,842 



5,975 



19,041 



54,992 



102,438 



88,142 



69,811 



73,043 



27,560 



37,034 



13,566 



9,975 



26,860 
528,427 



3,692 
1,942 
9,364 
4,446 



3,040 
12,174 

8,744 
17,456 



22,896 
17,032 
29,561 
19,153 



16,316 
22,024 
27,378 
13,342 
11,650 



11,068 
16.540 
19,816 
18,670 



18,582 
31,104 
21,792 
38,714 
26,082 



22,818 
17,706 
10,110 
20,115 



12,485 
12,787 
10,268 
5,533 



1864. 

5,971 

11,963 

2,216 

2,632 

7,834 



6,423 
10,834 

4.813 
16,479 



5,583 

770 

13,202 

7,558 



2,987 
13,470 
5,072 
2,037 
2,886 



19,444 



41,414 



88,642 



90,710 



66,094 



136,274 



70,749 



41,073 



30,616 



38,549 



27,113 



26,432 
677,110 



2,261 
1,539 
1,323 
3,268 



4,374 
6,897 
5,232 
10,090 



24,090 
29,886 
47,944 
33,103 



38,170 
20,447 
16,669 
22,817 
18,211 



15,396 
14,544 
19,457 
24,293 



15,250 
18,805 
12,406 
20,653 
25,542 



24,674 
23,700 
15,369 
24,921 



11,794 
8,496 

11,919 
9,901 



1865. 

2,975 

8,623 

20,081 

19,156 

2,685 



4,851 
16,069 

5,689 
15,658 



2,718 

894 

13,901 

2,770 



2,213 
4,412 
4,199 
3,745 
976 



PRACTICA.L Dairy Husbandry. 



285 



"Weekly Exports of cheese from New York to Liverpool— C(9n<mifecZ. 



Week Ending 



May 



June 



July 



August 



September, 5. 
12. 
19. 
26. 



October 3. 
10. 
17. 
24 
31 

November 7 
14. 
21. 
28. 

December 5 
12. 
19. 
26. 



January 



16. 

23. 
30. 

February 6 . 
13. 
20. 

27. 



March 



April 



Total. 



1865. 



2,278 

4,404 

253 

214 



3,861 
6,091 
20,714 
11,751 



36,345 
16,391 
35,097 
25,314 



30,334 
23,769 
27,476 
25,367 
51,466 



27,383 
27,634 
20,139 
14,046 



1,586 
2,335 
4,745 
1,598 
4,643 



7,168 
5,812 
10,307 
11,889 



4,121 
9,347 
4.038 
1,926 



8,274 
1,531 
1,117 
1,395 
839 



4,171 

5,530 

470 

340 



142 



302 
269 



493 

619 

3,660 

1,142 

362 



7,149 



42,417 



113,147 



158,412 



89,211 



14,907 



35,176 



19,432 



13,156 



10,511 



713 



6,276 



1866. 



510,507 



927 

656 

1,170 

4,869 



2,614 
6,168 
11,374 
14,480 



20.994 

21,447 
27,875 
30,423 



17,068 
11,939 
23,882 
28,138 
21,975 



1867. 



7,622 



34,337 



100,738 



102,822 



245,520* 



321,125t 



Shipments of cheese to London from May 1 to August 31, 1865, 21,000 boxes ; 1866, 37,000 boxes. 

* Total from May 1, 1866, to September 1, 1866. 
t Total during same time, 1865. 



286 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



^ 



In the foregoing table the average weight of the packages may be esti- 
mated at about seventy pounds each. The following table gives the quantity 
of cheese shij^pedfrom New York to Liverpool from May, 1865 to December 
20, 1866, reduced to one hundred pound packages, with the average weekly 
price in shillings (English) at which American cheese is sold in London. The 
tables are valuable in showing how prices are influenced by excessive ship- 
ments at any one time : 

SHIPMENTS OF CHEESE FROM NEW YORK TO ENGLAND, WITH PRICES IN LONDON. 









1865-'66. 










1866-'67. 




Week end- 
ing 


Box- 
es. 


100 LBS- 


Pbice 


IN London. 


Week end- 
ing 


Box- 
es. 


100 LBS 


Price in London. 


1865. 








1865. 




Shillings. 


1866. 






1866. 


Shillings. 


June 


6 


3 


45 


June 


22 


64 to 68 


June 5 


3 


218 


June £1 


76 to 82 




13 


3 


850 




29 


64 to 66 


12 


3 


393 


28 


76 to 82 




20 


9 


703 


July 


6 


64 to 66 


19 


4 


457 


July 5 


76 to 80 




27 


8 


219 




13 


56 to 62 


26 


7 


649 


12 


74 to 78 


July 


4 


20 


158 




20 


60 to 62 


July 3 


10 


272 


19 


72 to 76 




11 


14 


607 




27 


60 to 62 


10 


12 


506 


26 


70 to 74 




18 


18 


67 


August 


3 


58 to 62 


17 


16 


299 


August 2 


70 to 74 




26 


24 


544 




10 


58 to 62 


24 


16 


234 


9 


70 to 74 


August 


1 


20 


95 




17 


56 to 60 


31 


10 


627 


16 


70 to 72 




8 


9 


809 




24 


58 to 62 


August 7 


11 


527 


23 


70 to 72 




15 


18 


278 




31 


56 to 60 


14 


13 


313 


30 


70 to 72 




22 


30 


779 


September 7 


58 to 60 


21 


12 


983 


September 6 


68 to 70 




29 


26 


998 




14 


58 to 60 


28 


16 


466 


13 


66 to 70 


September 5 


17 


546 




21 


56 to 62 


September 4 


17 


374 


20 


66 to 70 




12 


12 


312 




28 


56 to 62 


11 


17 


126 


27 


64 to 70 




19 


16 


531 


October 


5 


56 to 62 


18 


4 


914 


October 4 


62 to 68 




26 


4 


486 




12 


56 to 62 


25 


7 


716 


11 


62 to 68 


October 


3 


4 


486 




19 


60 to 63 


October 2 


15 


82 


18 


62 to 66 




10 


2 


325 




26 


60 to 63 


9 


16 


391 


25 


60 to 64 




17 


2 


201 


November 2 


60 to 63 


16 


10 


787 


November 1 


60 to 64 




24 


6 


596 




9 


60 to 66 


23 


19 


705 


8 


60 to 64 




31 


3 


838 




16 


65 to 70 


30 


8 


261 


15 


60 to 64 


November 7 


4 


175 




23 


65 to 70 


November 6 


8 


154 


22 


60 to 64 




14 


6 


10 




30 


65 to 70 


13 


11 


660 


29 


60 to 64 




21 


11 


636 


December 7 


65 to 70 


20 


8 


858 


December 6 


62 to 66 




28 


7 


301 




14 


65 to 70 


27 


10 


847 


13 


66 to 68 


December 


6 


4 


640 




21 


65 to 70 


December 4 


11 


551 


20 


66 to 68 




12 


6 


329 




28 


65 to 70 


11 


15 


506 


27 


66 to 68 




19 


5 


683 








18 


10 


981 








26 


6 


81 


1866. 






25 


6 


413 






1866. 


2 
9 
16 
23 
30 
6 
13 
20 


5 
4 
2 
1 
1 
5 
3 
2 


683 

49 

996 

352 

983 
553 

146 

747 


January 

February 
March 


4 

11 

18 

25 

1 

8 

15 

22 

1 

8 


66 to 70 
68 to 70 
68 to 70 
68 to 72 
68 to 72 
68 to 74 
68 to 74 
74 to 78 
74 to 80 
74 to 80 


1867. 
January 1 
8 
15 
22 
29 
February 5 
12 
19 


6 

18 


413 
158 






January 






































February 
































27 

6 

13 

20 

27 

3 

10 

17 

%i 

1 

8 

15 

22 

29 


"2" 

1 
1 


407 
580 
865 
124 
157 
133 
706 
460 
168 
906 
396 
871 
563 
515 


April 
May 

June 


15 
22 
29 

5 
12 
19 
26 

3 
10 
17 
24 
31 

7 
14 


74 to 80 
80 to 84 
80 to 84 
78 to 83 
78 to 82 
78 to 80 
78 to 80 
80 to 81 
80 to 81 
80 to 82 
80 to 82 
73 to 76 
73 to 76 
76 to 82 


26 

March 5 

12 

19 

26 

April 2 

9 

16 

23 

30 

May 7 

14 

21 

28 










March 








































April 






































. 


May 










































1 








1 







ENGLISH DAIRY PRACTICE. 



EECENT IMPROVEMENTS. 

The following account of recent improvements in English dairy practice 
is from the pen of Mr. Joseph Haeding of Marksbury, England, who is well 
known as the great exponent of Cheddar cheese making in Great Britain. 
The paper will be of interest to American dairymen. 

The spirit of improvement which has so largely pervaded the agricultural 
world during the last twenty-five or thirty years is not more manifest in the 
production of corn and meat than it is in the manufacture of butter and 
cheese ; and though the latter branch has not derived as much benefit from 
the assistance of national or local agricultural societies as the former, it has 
yet made great progress both as to the quantity and the quality of its prod- 
ucts. To the attainment of this object nearly every well-informed and intel- 
ligent dairy farmer has contributed his part. In detailing these improve- 
ments I may not, perhaps, be expected to go into all the dairy districts of 
England, and to particularize every improvement Avhich has taken place in 
each of them ; my experience, as a Somershetshire man, milking a dairy of 
my own of from seventy to seventy-five cows, will enable me to speak from 
personal and practical knowledge as to the improvements, in all their details, 
in the dairy practice of my own county, more especially in the manufacture 
of cheese. 

I believe, however, from the knowledge which I have of other dairy dis- 
tricts, such as Gloucester, Wilts, Leicester, Derby and Cheshire, that any 
disinterested person taking upon himself to write upon the subject could not 
fix on a district better calculated to answer the requirements of the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England than the county of Somerset. It is true 
that this county is not much noted for its butter ; but as a district for making 
cheese, due regard being had both to quantity and quality, it is not surpassed 
in Great Britain. Here is made what is termed the " Cheddar cheese," 
which is always quoted in the London market at a higher price than any 
other (Stilton excepted, which is not a fiiir example). Here, too, an example 
has been set in the improvement of machinery, utensils and mode of manu- 
facture, which has given a stimulus not only to all the surrounding districts, 
but even to Scotland. 



288 Practical Dairy Husbanbry. 

But my business is not so much to eulogize the dairy practice and produce 
of this or any other district, as to detail, in a simple and intelligible manner, 
any improvements which have tended to increase the quantity, improve the 
quality of these products, and at the same time to reduce the labor of 
manufacture. 

IJSrCEEA.SE IN QUANTITY. 

In order to show an increase in the dairy produce of any given district, 
it would be necessary to know its aggregate amount at different periods ; but 
as, to the best of my knowledge, no records exist which furnish this informa- 
tion as derived from any dairy district in England, it will be impossible to 
contrast our present average produce with that of former years. The only 
course, therefore, which we can adopt is to take a single farm which 
may be considered a fair specimen of the district in which it is situ- 
ated. A farm of one hundred and fifty acres in this county, of fair 
quality, divided into one hundred and ten acres of pasture and forty of 
arable, would, some years ago, probably have been stocked with thirty 
cows, five or six heifers (to keep up the stock), besides a few horses. The 
arable course would have been — one, fallow; two, wheat; three, beans; four, 
wheat again ; five, clover mown twice, then fallow again ; barley being grown 
occasionally on suitable soil. It was thought that on the pasture land no 
more cows could be kept than the one-half would maintain in summer, the 
other half being mown for winter-keep ; that would give (allowing three 
acres per cow) ninety acres for thirty cows, and twenty acres would be left 
for the young stock and horses. The arable land at this time received the 
greater part, if not all, the manure. 

A farm of this description would now keep fifty cows. The larger part 
of the arable land would be in grass and roots, corn being grown only on the 
decay of the grass plant, which, instead of being mown, would be grazed by 
the cows, and admit of being stocked a fortnight earlier in spring than the 
meadow grass : the straw would be cut into chaff and mixed with roots, 
meal, oil-cake, or some other substitute to make it equal in nutriment to hay. 
The roots would be chiefly grown by artificial manures, and a portion of 
them fed off by dry sheep, so that a considerable part of the yard manure 
could be spared for the pasture land. Although I have spoken above only 
of an increase of twenty cows, I know some farms on which the extra number 
is even larger. 

Where the farm is wholly pasture, as is the case with a large number of 
the dairy farms in this county, there cannot be as large an increase of produce 
as is stated above. Yet even here, as the land is made to carry as much stock 
as possible, the increase in the number kept is considerable. Some farmers 
will feed nearly all their land and sell the cows in the autumn, looking forward 
to replacing them in the spring of the year. This seems to be an expensive 
mode of increasing dairy produce ; but where the land produces a large 
quantity of milk the grass is of far more value than the hay. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 289 

Others, again, have adoi^ted the plan of preserving a few acres of after- 
math (after being fed once) till the spring ; the young grass is thus drawn 
up by the shelter which the old aifords, and consequently comes to feed 
earlier than it would otherwise do. This feed is valuable for turning out the 
cows by day ; it thus both lessens the consumption of hay and increases the 
yield of milk. Among my acquaintance the farmer who realizes the largest 
amount of profit per cow, lives in Leicestershire, and makes both butter and 
cheese. His farm is a loamy soil, not much affected by drouth or wet, so 
that it is generally in a growing state throughout the summer. He keeps 
only cows and young stock. The cows have the first feed of every field, the 
heifers following them in the round of the farm. A man brings up the rear 
to clean up the droppings, so that the field is clean and fresh for the cows 
on their next round. 

The building of houses and yards for the accommodation of the cows has 
not a little tended to an increase of produce, inasmuch as it has enabled us to 
keep the stock ofi* the land during the winter months. The grass conse- 
quently grows earlier in the spring, and enables us to mow earlier, so as to 
secure a better feed on the aftergrass. The introduction of artificial manures 
has rendered us great assistance, especially for the arable lands, although the 
pasture likewise feels the efiects of the change. Bones have been used on 
the pasture, but not to such an extent nor with such success- as in Cheshire. 
Besides all this, nearly all the wet lands have been drained, and the wide and 
useless hedge rows grubbed up, so that our atmosphere has become dryer 
and more healthy. Nature has lent a helping hand, and we have in conse- 
quence a longer summer and a shorter winter. A large quantity of cheese 
is made from some of the hills which formerly only fed a few half-starved 
sheep and cattle. Some of these improvements may seem to be of small 
importance to the casual reader; but when, carried out through a whole 
district, as in this county, the effect is great, and these^ I believe, are the 
chief causes which have led to the dairy produce of this county being 
increased, within a few years, twenty-five per cent.. 

EEDUCTIOlSr OF LABOR IIST THE MAKTJFACTUEE. 

Under this head, speaking first of butter,. I may state that the improve- 
ments are not so great either in the mode of making, the utensils employed, 
or the reduction of labor, as in the case of cheese, because two very simple 
processes only are required to accomplish the object, namely, "churning" 
and " working." Chui-ning is a simple process of agitation, and whether it 
be accomplished by a vertical, a longitudinal, or a rotary motion, the effect 
is the same ; and notwithstanding the many attempted improvements in the 
construction of the utensil employed, there is not for general purposes, any- 
thing superior to, or that is likely to supersede, the old barrel churn. In it, 
either a large or a small quantity of butter, and that of the best quality, may 
be produced. 

19 



290 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

As to the working the butter — which is generally performed by the hand 

the object is the extraction of all the buttermilk. Some persons use small 

wooden spades, others envelope their hands in a cloth, but nothing of this 
kind can be termed a " late improvemennt." The greatest step in advance 
consists in the fact that observation and the introduction of the thermometer 
has enabled us to lay down a rule for the temperature to be maintained in 
churning. It is found that if the cream be put into the churn at from 55° to 
60° in summer, and not less than 60° in the winter, it will be churned in 
good time, that is, from half an hour to forty minutes, and, if properly 
worked, will produce good butter. If it be churned at a lower temperature 
it will be too long in churning, and will require heating during the process. 
If above that temperature, it will " come " too soon and will be frothy and 
oily ; in both cases the butter will be inferior. Until a comparatively recent 
date, it was a difficulty in cold weather to get the butter chui-ned ; the 
process not unfrequently occupied several hours, and I have known the 
produce to be thrown away as utterly useless after all. This difficulty is 
now entirely overcome. 

Experience, moreover, has taught us that although, if milk be allowed to 
stand till it becomes stale or sour before the cream is removed from it, the 
butter thus made will not be good ; on the other hand, if the cream be taken 
while the milk is sweet, the cream may be kept until it becomes sour, without 
the butter being materially affected. 

The process of butter making varies in different countries. In Scotland, 
Ireland and Wales they churn the milk, and, when this is done properly, I 
believe that the butter, for delicacy of flavor, cannot be surpassed. 

In the making of cheese a much greater improvement has been effected, 
in consequence of its having received more attention than butter making, 
cheese being the staple commodity of the district, and, when well made, 
more remunerative to the farmer. For many years past it has been our 
object to produce the best cheese with the least possible labor — an object we 
have, in no small degree, accomplished. Within my own recollection, a 
week, at least, may be said to have been occupied in making a cheese — that 
is, from the time the milk was coagulated till the cheese was taken from the 
press to the cheese-room. During this time it was tui-ned in the press twice 
every day, and had salt rubbed over it by the hand every morning. I have 
known, in a dairy of fifty cows, fifty-two cheeses to be thus turned thrice a 
day, giving a vast amount of unnecessary labor to the dairy woman and 
expense for cloths to the farmer. This state of things exists to this day in 
some of our largest cheese-making districts. 

The machinery and utensils, too, were of a rude description. The presses 
were either a large stone raised by a screw, or a box filled with some heavy 
material and suspended between two upright posts and lowered or raised by 
ropes and pulleys. I should have thought it almost incredible that there 
should exist a cheese-making district in England that had not partaken of the 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



291 



universal improvement in the cheese-press, had I not learned a lesson the 
other day. A friend of mine was traveling in a railway carriage in Lan- 
cashire in which some farmers were discussing the merits of an improved 
cheese-press lately introduced into their district, when one of them, convinced 
of its superiority, said, " I do not think I shall lay out much money in a 
stone press again." 

The utensils were generally made of wood, and the whey, however large 
the quantity, had to be ladled out of the tub with a heavy wooden bowl. 
The curd, when put into the vat, was broken into small pieces by the hand, 
— so laborious a work that I have seen dairy women whose finger joints were 
grown large and stiff in consequence. After the cheeses were introduced to 
the cheese-room, they had to be washed and scraped before they became 




Cheese Press — 3-4ths of an inch to a foot 
marketable, which was not generally the case until they were from four to 
six months old, although they were what we should now term thiii cheese. 
In many instances the cheese Avas kept until the following spring. The pro- 
cess of manufacture was unsystematic and irregular, without regard to an 
even or proper temperature ; consequently the cheese was of unequal quality 
— some good, some bad — from causes unknown to the dairywomen. This 
was the state of things when improvement in the machinery and utensils 
began to be studied. It is just, however, to state that, with regard to the 
cheese tub, a few wealthy and enterprising men thought it desirable to substi- 
tute copper in lieu of wood many years before this general movement took place. 
These tubs were made rough and at a great expense, many of them them cost- 
ing from forty to sixty pounds apiece, according to the number of cows kept. 



292 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

About thirty years ago the first improved cheese press was exhibited ia 
Weils market, in this county, and, though extremely simple, j)roved to be a 
step in the right direction. I think that prizes have been awarded to it in 
its incomplete shape more than once by the Royal and other Agricultural 
Societies. The principle of its construction was that of the lever in its 
simplest form. The subject was immediately taken ujd by the mechanics of 
the neighborhood, who gradually improved upon the cheese press until the 
model now in general use was produced. It consists of a sci-ew and a lever, 
the former working in a brass socket, and serving as a fulcrum for the latter, 
by which the pressure, produced and regulated by a weight attached to the 
opposite end of the lever, is conveyed to the cheese. When the screw is 
reversed the lever drops on to a pin, the pressure is withdrawn, and the 
cheese may be removed. This is decidedly the best implement for the jaur- 
pose that has yet been invented. It is manufactured in large numbers by the 
best agricultural implement makers in this and the adjoining counties. 

About this time copper, and sometimes brass, began to be used more fre- 
quently for making cheese tubs, but, being too expensive for general use, tin 
was successfully substituted and continues to be employed to the present time. 
It costs one-third the price of copper, and will last for twenty or thirty years. 
All the other utensils of the dairy which were formerly of wood, such as 
bowls, pails, &c., are now made of tin, which saves a vast amount of labor 
and expense in brushes. 

The vessels are in some cases improved in shape as well as in material ; 
the cheese tub, which was flat at the bottom, is now made convex to facilitate 
draining off the whey. A large brass tap is soldered into the bottom of the 
tub, inside of which is a strainer made of fine gauze, wire or other material, 
to prevent small particles of curd from escaping. The whey flowing from 
this tap is conveyed in a pipe leading from the floor of the dairy to a tank 
or cistern in the piggery, from whence it is pumped for use. That the milk- 
ers may not enter the dairy, a tin receiver is placed outside the house, into 
which the milk is poured and conveyfed to the cheese tub by a conduit, at 
each end of which is a strainer to prevent any filth from the yard from pass- 
ing into the cheese tub. It is a mistaken notion with many practical cheese 
makers, and all theorists, than an exceedingly fine strainer is necessary in 
order to separate the whey from the curd. If the cheese be well made, the 
curd itself is the best strainer or filterer ; but where there is a large bulk 
of whey to be drawn off from the curd, it will flow through the tap with 
great force, so as to carry away particles of curd, if something is not placed 
inside as a strainer. To obviate this, a new and valuable instrument, called 
the Whey Separator, has just been invented by Mr. Robert McAdam of 
Garsty Hill, near Crewe, Cheshire, for which he has taken out a patent. It 
is made of brass, and is a telescopic tube, one end of which fits on inside the 
outlet in the bottom of the tub ; to the other end is screwed a receiver, which 
floats on the surface of the whey, which enters its perforated brass under-? 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



293 



surface, and is thus conveyed down the tube to the brass tap at the bottom 
of the tub, the tubes sinking into each other as the whey subsides. This 
separator costs about forty shillings ; it is the best thing of the kind I have 
ever seen, as it takes the whey from the surface, where it is most free from 
curd, and prevents the mass of the curd from being disturbed by the whey 
on its passage to the outlet. 

The curd breaker generally in use for breaking up the coagulated mass is 
either the shovel breaker or the revolving breaker. The former is made of 
wood in the shape of a shovel with a bent handle ( ^^mr — ) ; through the 
lower end of the handle, at right angles to it, nine or ten brass rods are 
insei'ted, extending about six inches on either side, and secured at each end 
by a strip of wood about fourteen inches in length. The revolver is made 
of rods of iron, set in a framework fitted to the inside of the tub, where it is 
made to revolve upon a vertical axis by a handle at the outside of the tub 
like that of a churn. 




The Expanding Cheese Vat. 

The vats, which were formerly made of turned wood, are now made of 
staves like a cask. In not a few instances tin is employed for the purpose, 
but I scarcely think it will come into general use for our thick cheeses. The 
stave vat has recently been improved by being made to open at the side at 
one of the joints between the staves, corresponding to opposite joints across 
the top and the bottom ; the opening is sufficiently wide to allow of the 
cheese being easily liberated from the vat when reversed for the purpose. 
To accomplish this, there are four projecting screw-holes : one at each end 
of the two severed iron hoops which encircle the vat, and one at the top and 
one at the bottom. When the vat is closed, two of these screw-holes will be 
opposite each other, and through them a screw-bolt is inserted which keeps 
the vat together ; by loosening these bolts the vat is enabled to expand and 
the cheese is easily liberated. 

An apparatus has been invented for cheese making by Mr. Keevil of 



294 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Wiltshire, and is in use in that and some other districts, Avhich, though not 
applicable to the Somerset or Cheddar mode of making, is, I believe, of 
service in making the Wiltshire cheese. It consists of a tin tub, down the 
side of which there runs a strip of gauze wire, three or four inches in width, 
which allows the whey to escape to a brass tap at the bottom. A breaker 
is used, similar to the revolver above described, but Mr. Keevil has altered 
the round rod to a flat, knife-shaped piece of iron, thus altering the principle 
of breaJcing the mass to that of cutting. Instead of a vat into which weights 
were put for the purpose of pressing the curd in the tub, a perforated circu- 
lar piece of tin is used, fitting the inside of the tub, to which pi-essure is 
applied by a screw running through a strong cross-piece of iron, fastened to 
the opposite sides of the tub. The cheese tub is on a raised platform, and can 
be made to incline at pleasure, so as to allow the last drop of whey to escape. 
A much more useful apparatus for our improved method of cheese making 
has been invented by Messrs. Cockey & So?^ of Frome. Its object is to 
save the labor of carrying the milk to and from the boiler for heating previous 
to the introduction of the rennet, and also of carrying the Avhey for scalding 
the curd. A small boiler is placed in a desirable situation, from which hot 
water is conveyed by pipes to a chamber underneath the tub, where it can 
be turned off or on at pleasure, by stop-cocks. One advantage in this appa- 
ratus is, that during the summer nights cold water may be let into the cham- 
ber underneath the evening's milk, which is thus raj^idly cooled down to the 
temperature of the water. This expedient is very valuable for keeping the 
milk sweet till the morning, as we make cheese only once a day. The appa- 
ratus is extensively used in this and some other countries. During the winter 
months the cheese-room and dairy are heated from the same boiler. 

THE IMPROVEMENT IN THE QUALITY OF CHEESE 

is due partly to what is here technically called ''slip-scalding'' and to 
increased attention bestowed on the manufacture, and partly to more careful 
storing in the cheese-room. In all these cases the thermometer and the clock 
have greatly assisted in reducing cheese making to a regular system. The 
process is now conducted in the following manner :— The morning's milk is 
mixed with the evening's at a temperature of about 80° (varying tw^o or 
three degrees in the spring and autumn), the rennet then is added, and an 
hour is allowed for the curd to form, when it is carefully broken up ; and 
here commences the system of slip-scalding, now generally adopted in prefer- 
ence to the old method. The scalding whey is now added to the curd in its 
pulpy state, before it has had time to subside and get hard. Experience has 
shown us that a finer description of cheese is produced upon this principle, 
which is adopted by the best cheese makers in this county. What is here 
called scalding is the raising the mass of curd and whey to the temperature 
of 100° Fahr. By Cockey's apparatus, hot water is introduced into the 
chamber by pipes placed underneath the tub to accomplish this purpose ; 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 295 

otherwise, hot whey ia poured into the mass, which in both cases is being well 
stirred, until the desired heat is obtained. The curd is then allowed to sub- 
side, and, after the whey is drained off and the curd becomes dry, instead of 
being broken by the hand, it is passed through the curd mill, after which salt 
is added and mixed with it in the proportion of one pound to fifty-six pounds. 
It is then put into the vat and press, where it remains three days, after which 
it is taken to the cheese-room. The cheeses are made from nine to fourteen 
inches in thickness, some even more. They are turned only twice in the 
press, and that is when the cloths are changed. 

THE METHOD OF KEEPING THE CHEESE IN" THE CHEESE-KOOM HAS ALSO 

BEEN IMPEOVED. 

At one time we thought it desirable to keep them in a low and even damp 
temperature, but the cheese was then a long time in getting ripe, and a fine 
mellow flavor was not readily obtained. We now introduce them at once 
from the press to the cheese-room, which is kept at a temperature of from 
.50° to 70°, as the case may be ; and we find that the cheese ripens faster, 
acquires a richer flavor, and can be sold much sooner ; so that our thick 
cheeses are often cut over the counter at three months old, sometimes even 
less ; though a few years since the saime sized cheese would have required 
eight or nine months to acquire the same degree of ripeness. 

This system of making has diminished the make of whey butter. Where 
we made one pound per cow, we now make one pound for every seven cows, 
and sometimes less ; the quantity is so reduced that we often do not think it 
worth the risk of imparting sourness to the cheese, but turn the whey off to 
the pig-tank. Some persons tell us that we lose a great deal of valuable food 
in our whey, as proved by the bacon fatted from it. When bacon is fatted 
from Avhey alone this must be the case ; but the whey from a cheese well and 
carefully made would not fatten a pig in six months. 

To the cheese consumers of London, who prefer an adulterated food to 
that which is pure, I have to announce an improvement in the annatto with 
which they compel the cheese makers to color the cheese. The improvement 
is not in the smell, which remains as unpleasant as ever ; neither is it in the 
taste — that is as filthy as ever ; but it consists in this — that we now get 
annatto in a liquid state, instead of a cake, which saves the trouble of 
rubbing out. 

I have now enumerated the principal improvements in dairy practice that 
have enabled us to send into the market a superior article, increased in 
quantity twenty-five per cent., at a reduction of the original labor of more 
than half. Although we have attained this result by studying, as far as our 
observation and experience go, the state of the curd through the various 
stages and manipulations which it undergoes, and have acquired, so far, some 
knowledge of what we are doing, we have not yet arrived at perfection. 
Cheese making^ as a scietice, is not understood. I could ask a dozen ques- 



296 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

tions, which suggest themselves at the various stages of the process, and 
which cannot be answered. 

We have now a body of valuable rules laid down for our guidance; 
though strict observation and practical experience . are, of course, requisite 
for their successful application. But this is not enough. A wide and unex- 
plored field is before us, into which we should enter. Milk, as taken from 
the cow, is of a peculiarly rich and delicious flavor. The object of the cheese 
maker should be to preserve that flavor throughout the process, and leave it 
to ripen in the cheese ; but the accomplishment of this design is not always 
certain (especially in thunder weather), in the absence of an instrument with 
which we are not yet provided. Liebig and other chemists tell us that milk, 
in its pristine state, possesses a quantity of sugar, which, in the process' 
towards decomposition, produces lactic acid. Alkalies are also present 
which neutralize the acid until an inci-eased amount of the latter is generated, 
when the milk becomes sour. Believing this to be true, and knowing that 
heat promotes the formation of the acid, when the temperature of the atmos- 
phere is 65° we act cautiously lest we should make the cheese sour, and, no 
doubt, our precaution is frequently attended with success. But there are 
other agents besides heat which promote the souring of the milk, even when 
the atmosphere is as low as 60° : over these we have no control at the time, 
besides being generally unaware of their existence until it would be too late 
to seek a remedy, if any such were known to exist. The instrument, then, 
which we want is one which will show us the exact amount of acid present, 
that we may know when to introduce the rennet, and in what quantity. It 
is true we have litmus-paper, but this only indicates the presence of acid 
without measuring the quantity present. While searching for such an 
instrument as this among opticians and chemists for several years past, I 
have been recommended to try one or two chemical methods, the best of 
which is by Dr. Cameron of Dublin. None of these tests, however, are 
sufiiciently simple to be of much use to a practical dairy woman, who wants an 
instrument efiective and simple, by which she can as easily test the amount 
of acid present, as she can by the thermometer ascertain the degree of heat. 
Another desideratum is a chemical knowledge of the constitution of the 
curd and whey throughout the process. It is not likely that this investiga- 
tion will be carried out by the unaided efforts of any practical man ; but 
with assistance, such as the Royal Agricultural Society of England could 
render, this object might be attained, and the result would be that cheese 
could be made (as it ought to be) upon principles scientific and, consequently, 
unerring. 

The press illustrated on page 297 is the only one I have in use for seventy- 
two cows ', the other principal utensils are— cheese-tub, two milk-coolers, 
curd-mill, six vats for summer use, six smaller ones for the spring and autumn. 
The press was made by Stokes of Dean, near Shipton-Mallet, and cost 
about nine pounds. 



COMPOSITION OF CHEESE, 



The most recent and valuable chemical investigations that we have on 
the composition and manufacture of cheese, are those made for the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England by Prof. Voelcker. These papers hitherto 
have not been accessible to American dairymen. They are very suggestive 
and valuable, and will be found of important aid to those practicing the 
cheese-making art. I therefore introduce them in this connection. He says : 

In the opinion of many persons English cheese is not what it used to be 
in the good old time, when it was far more common than now-a-days for 
farmers' wives personally to preside over the dairy and conduct the making 
of cheese through its various stages. Some people assert positively that the 
English cheese of the present day is inferior in quality to that which was 
made centuries ago. It is of course impossible to give satisfactory proofs of 
this supposed inferiority ; but at the same time it must be admitted that the 
prevailing custom of leaving the chief dairy operations almost entirely in the 
hands of servants furnishes strong presumptive evidence in favor of those 
who maintain these views. As a rule, we have found the best cheese on 
farms where the mistress of the house was herself dairy-maid-in-chief, 
especially if industrious habits and scrupulous cleanliness were associated 
with superior intelligence. Indeed I have had recently frequent occasion to 
notice the intimate connection which appears to exist on the one hand 
between good cheese and cleanliness, order, general intelligence and desire 
to excel, and on the other hand between bad cheese, slovenliness, ignorance 
and practical conceit. In the best-managed dairies, however, cheese-making 
is practiced entirely as an empiric art, which is admitted by our best practi- 
cal authorities to be capable of great improvement, the importance of which 
is obvious when we consider the large amount of capital directly or indirectly 
embarked in dairy-farming. Mr. Humberstoke, member for Chester, has 
the merit of having first directed the attention of our Society to the import- 
ance of scientific investigation into the principles of cheese-making; and the 
Council, on the recommendation of the Chemical Committee, made a special 
grant to enable me to visit the principal dairy districts of England, to carry 
out certain practical experiments and obtain what practical assistance I 
required. The more direct laboratory experiments, which, like the whole 



298 Practical Daiby Husbandby. 

investigation, are still in active progress, have been selected by the Chemical 
Committee as one of the regular subjects for investigation for the current 
year. During the last ten mouths I and two of my assistants have been 
almost exclusively occupied with the analytical work demanded by a thorough 
investigation into the jjrinciples of cheese-making. At the same time I have 
spent between four and five weeks at difierent times in visiting the dairies 
of Gloucestershire, Wilts, Somersetshire, Warwick, Stafford and part of 
Cheshire ; and I purpose paying another visit to Cheshire and Derbyshire in 
the ensuing summer vacation. This paper will embody some of the practical 
conclusions to which I have arrived, partly from my visits and partly from 
my investigations. 

The first point to be observed is, that cheese is often spoiled (to use an 
Irishism) before it is made — that is, before it is separated from the milk : in 
other words, the milk is spoiled. Then the cheese is spoiled during the 
making, and also in the keeping. Again I have learned that richer cheese 
may be made on some land, even when a portion of cream has been taken 
from the milk, than on other land where the whole milk is used. 3d. I concur, 
with our best and most intelligent cheese-makers in the opinion, that good 
saleable, though perhaps not very fine-flavored cheese, can be made on any 
description of land, provided proper care and attention are paid to the man- 
agement of the milk at the beginning, to the treatment of the cheese in the 
tub, and to its after ripening. 4th. From all I could learn practically, and 
from what I have seen with my own eyes, I have come to the conclusion that 
bones improve the quality of the pasture and the richness of the milk, but 
also that more care is required to make cheese from boned pasture than on 
poor land. 5th. The flavor of the different kinds of cheese, such as Cheddar, 
Stilton, Cheshire and others, is much more dependent on the method in ordi- 
nary use in these different counties than on the quality of the pasture, although 
the latter exercises a considerable influence. The inferiority of the Boothy 
cheese, made from dry food, to that produced when the cows are at grass, is 
well known. Nevertheless, admitting that food does much affect the flavor 
of cheese, I still am of opinion that the various practical manipulations exer- 
cise a yet higher influence iu this respect. 6th. Each system of cheese- 
making, whether that of Gloucestershire or Somersetshire, appears to have 
its peculiar excellences, but also its peculiar defects. 7th. Matters altogether 
indifferent are frequently insisted iipon as essential to success, while others 
of the greatest importance are either neglected altogether or much under- 
valued : unless, therefore, a person thoroughly understands the grounds of 
his selection and preference, it is better to adopt one empiric method than to 
attempt to combine the different plans. 8th. I found good makers of cheese 
who had never heard a word aboxit chemistry. 9th, Although much mystery 
is thrown around this art, all that is mysterious about it is purely accidental : 
the process in itself is very simple, and accords well with scientific principles 
so far as these have been ascei'tained ; but skillful management is perhaps 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 299 

rather the exception than the rule. 10th. Even good practice may be con- 
siderably improved, or, more correctly speaking, simplified, by the applica- 
tion of scientific principles to cheese-making. 11th. With respect to the 
recent mechanical improvements which have been introduced in the dairy 
districts, Keevil's and Coquet's apparatus, and others which have been 
described at some length in a former volume of our Journal, save, indeed, a 
great deal of labor and time, but otherwise effect nothing which may not be 
done by skillful hands. 12th. Milk, as I have ascertained by numerous 
analyses, varies much in its composition, for which reason great differences 
must also be expected in cheese. 13th. Considerable loss both in quality and 
quantity of cheese was found to arise from careless management. 14th. In 
studying the action of rennet on milk I find that misapprehension, if not alto- 
gether wrong statements, prevail in what has hitherto been said and written 
respecting its action. I shall have presently to advance proofs in confirma- 
tion of this assertion. 15th. I would observe, that generally the scientific 
pi'inciples involved in the manufacture of cheese are either misstated by scien- 
tific writers on the subject, or but imperfectly recognized by practical men. 
These are some of the pi'incipal conclusions at which I have arrived in the 
course of my investigation. As it is not my intention to write a complete 
essay on cheese-making, I shall at present only endeavor to point out — 1st, 
some of the chief errors made in the process, stating my reasons for sjDeaking 
of them as such ; and 2dly, to suggest some remedies and safeguards. But, 
in order to make my subsequent remarks a little more intelligible, I must 
briefly allude to the composition of milk, which, as is well known, is not a 
uniform white liquid, but a fluid owing its opaque character to a number of 
little cream gobules. Seen under a microscope of no very great power, milk 
appears as a colorless fluid in which there are floating innumerable little white 
globules or small bags containing fiitty matter. The butter is encased in 
these microscopic bags or cells, which themselves are composed of very much 
the same material as the curd of milk. These, being lighter than water, rise 
on standing, and are removed as cream. If it were possible to separate the 
cream completely by standing, the milk would be almost colorless ; but inas- 
much as a certain number of milk-globules always remain suspended in milk, 
even after long standing, skimmed milk is always more or less opaque. We 
must find, therefore, in the cheese made from skimmed-milk a certain amount 
of butter, though much less than in whole-milk cheeses. On the removal of 
the cream the milk becomes bluer and more transparent ; and hence the 
transparent and peculiarly blue appearance of some of the London milk is 
indicative of its poorness. On allowing milk to become acid, which it does 
readily in warm weather, one of its constituents, which, from its sweet taste, 
is called sugar-of-milk, is converted, at least in part, into lactic acid. This 
change is effected by simple transposition of the elementary particles of milk- 
sugar, without anything being added or detracted from them. This lactic 
acid again separates the next constituent, the caseine or curd of milk, which 



800 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 



may also be separated by rennet. On the removal of the caseine, either arti- 
ficially by rennet or naturally by the lactic acid, we obtain whey ; and, pro- 
vided this whey is perfectly clear and free from all butter and curd (which is 
not generally the case) in our dairies, we may, by evaporating the clear 
liquid, obtain milk-sugar and a certain quantity of matter which is incom- 
bustible, and constitutes the ash of milk. These then are the principal con- 
stituents of milk — curd or caseine, butter, milk-sugar, and mineral matters or 
ash. Now, in the preparation of cheese we separate the curd or caseine, and, 
if we want to make good cheese, also the butter and a small quantity of 
mineral matter contained in the milk. In the whey remains the milk-sugar 
and most of the mineral matter. A glance at the subjoined diagram, which 
gives the composition of different kinds of milk lately analyzed by me, will 
show the enormous difference that exists in the relative amounts of the vari- 
ous constituents of milk. 



COMPOSITION OF NEW MILK. 



No. 1. 
Milk 


No. 2. 
Milk 


No. 3. 
Milk 


No. 4. 
Milk 


No. 5. 

Milk 

analysed 


analysed 

Oct. 21, 

1860. 


ANALYSED 

Nov. 29, 
I860. 


analysed 

Sept. 18, 

1860. 


analysed 

Aug. 7, 

1860. 


Sept. 6, 

1860. 

(Morn'g's 

Milk.) 



No. 6. 
Milk 

analysed 

Sept. 6, 

1860. 

(Even'g'8 
Milk.) 



Water, 

Butter, 

Caseine, 

Milk-sngar, 

Mineral matter (asli),. 



Percentage of dry matters,. 



83.90 
7.63 
3.31 
4.46 

.71 



100.00 
16.10 



85.20 
4.96 
3.66 
5.05 
1.13 



100.00 
14.80 



86.65 
3.99 
3.47 
5.11 

.78 



100.00 
13.35 



87.40 

3.43 

3.13 

5.13 

.93 



100.00 
13.60 



89.95 

1.99 

2.94 

4.48 

.64 



100.00 
10.05 



90.70 

1.79 

3.81 

4.04 

.66 



100.00 
9.30 



I have selected these analyses from a considerable number of milk analyses 
lately made in my laboratory. They illustrate strikingly the great differences 
that exist in the quality of new milk. It might readily be imagined that milk 
such as that which I examined on the 6th of September, containing ninety 
and a-half per cent, of water, had either been diluted with water, or at least 
produced by cows fed on mangold-tops, distillery-wash, or similar food. 
Such, however, was not the case. The cows which yielded this poor milk 
were out in pasture, and every precaution was taken to get a fair average of 
the milkings from some eight or ten cows. The milk was received by me 
almost directly after it had left the udder, and I can thus vouch for its being 
genuine, and its watery condition natural. The pasture, however, was poor 
and overstocked, so that the daily growth of grass furnished hardly enough 
food to meet the daily waste to which the animal frame is subject, and was 
thus not calculated to meet an extra demand of materials for the formation 
of butter and curd. The milk consequently became not merely deficient in 
quantity, but also poor in quality. It is well then to bear in mind that an 
insufficient quantity of food in the case before us caused the supply of milk 



J 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 301 

to be small and unusually poor. This analysis illustrates and confirms a 
principle generally recognized by good dairy farmers, that it is bad policy to 
keep more cows than can be liberally supplied Avith food. The evening's 
milk on the 6th of September, it will be noticed, contained about three- 
fo^arths per cent, more water and somewhat less caseine and butter than the 
morning's milk of the same cows on the same day. From this and other 
instances some may be disposed to infer that the morning's milk is generally 
richer than the evening milk — a view which I myself was disposed to adopt 
until a larger range of experiments proved to me its inaccuracy. In truth, 
the comparatively greater richness of the morning or the evening milk 
depends on a variety of circumstances so complicated as to require a length- 
ened discussion, which I must postpone to a future paper. 

The remarkably small quantity of butter in the milk of the 6th of Sep- 
tember appears very striking when contrasted with the proportion of butter 
found in good milk, and still more so when compared with the unusually 
large quantity contained in the rich milk analyzed on the 21st of October. 
This milk, like that of the 6th of September, was produced by cows out in 
grass, without any additional food rich in fat, such as linseed or rape-cake, 
and yet it contained neaiiy four times as much butter as that of the cows 
kept on an insufficient quantity of poor grass. The beneficial influence of 
abundance of good pasture on the butter-yielding qualities of milk, and the 
contrary efiect of a stinted supply of grass, are seen in bold relief in the first 
and the sixth analyses. 

While the proportion of butter in diflTerent samples of milk varies exceed- 
ingly the relative amounts of curd or caseine, of milk-sugar and of ash, though 
liable to certain fluctuations, do not greatly differ in good, indifferent, or 
even very poor milk. It would thus appear that the quantity and quality 
of food, and other varying circumstances which affect the composition of 
milk, exert their influence principally on the jiroportion of butter. And as 
this .is certainly the most valuable constituent of cheese, and one jDound of 
butter suffices for about two pounds of salable cheese, we can readily under- 
stand that in one dairy a considerable quantity of cream may be taken off" 
the milk, and yet a better quality and a greater quantity of cheese can be 
made than in another dairy, from the same quantity of milk, from which no 
cream has been removed. 

The second analysis exhibits nearly five per cent, of butter, a proportion 
which is decidedly above the average. This analysis has been selected ^s an 
example illustrating the increasing richness of milk in the fall of the year. 
Practical cheese-makers are well acquainted Avith the fact, that in autumn, 
when green food becomes scarcer, the quantity of milk diminishes consider- 
ably, but that the weight of cheese which can then be made from a given 
quantity of milk is much greater than in spring or summer. An inspection 
of the second and fourth analyses affords a ready explanation of this fact. 

Both these milks came from the same dairy. In August the milk contained 



302 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

scarcely three and a-half per cent, of butter, and, in round numbers, three 
per cent, of caseine ; in November it yielded five per cent, of butter and one- 
half per cent, more caseine than in August. Rightly to appreciate this 
increase, it should be regarded, not so much as an addition of two and a-half 
parts in one hundred parts of fluid, as of two and a-half parts to twelve and 
a-half solid matter, the total percentage found in August, or an increase of 
twenty per cent, on the solid matter. And if we consider that most of the 
milk-sugar and of the mineral matters pass into the whey in the cheese-manu- 
facturing process, the difference in the cheese-producing qualities of the 
August and November milk appears still greater. 

In one of the milks we have three and a-half per cent, of butter and three 
of caseine, or five and a-half per cent, of solid cheese-producing materials in 
every one hundred parts of milk ; in the other there are five per cent, of 
butter and three and a-half of caseine, or eight and a-half of solid cheese-pro- 
ducing matters. Thus the real proportion in the two milks is as five and 
a-half to eight and a-half — that is to say, the latter yields fifty-five per cent, 
more dry cheese-forming materials than the former ; and as w'e find in good 
cheese about one-third of its weight of water, the fifty-five per cent of dry 
matter with this complement of water will amount to eighty-three per cent. 
In other words, one gallon of the November milk will produce nearly double 
the quantity of salable cheese which can be made from the August milk. 

The third analysis represents the composition of good, rich milk, and the 
fourth the average composition of milk neither rich nor poor. 

In rich milk the proportion which the butter bears to the caseine is always 
much greater than in milk of avei'age quality. In the latter there is about 
as much butter as caseine, and in decidedly poor milk the proportion of 
caseine is larger than that of butter. 

The preceding analyses have broiaght to light unexpectedly large differ- 
ences in the amount of butter which is contained in different samples of 
milk. With proper care and skill in cheese-making nearly the whole of the 
butter becomes incorporated with the curd ; and as the market price of 
cheese depends in a great measure, though not entirely, upon the proportion 
of butter which it contains, it is evident that t1ie original quality of the milk 
must have a decided and direct influence on the quality as well as the quan- 
tity of cheese which can be made from it. Although precisely the same 
process may be adopted, and equal care and attention may be bestowed on 
the manufacture, it nevertheless happens that not only more but also a better 
quality is made in one dairy than in another from the same number of 
gallons of milk. 

The food upon which dairy-stock is kept unquestionably exercises a great 
influence on the milk. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect certain pastures 
to be naturally better adapted for the production of rich cheese than others. 
Thus good old pasture not only produces richer milk than grass from irrigated 
meadows, but likewise a better quality of cheese, all other circumstances 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 303 

being equal in both cases. There is thus some reason in the almost univer- 
sally received ojDinion that on some land good cheese can invariably be made, 
while on other land no amount of skill or care can bring about a like result. 
But at the same time I believe it is quite a mistake to think that good cheese 
can only be made in certain localities, and that the character of the pasture 
accounts entirely for the great differences found in the quality of this article. 
Good salable, and even high-priced cheese, I believe with Mr. Harding, can 
be made in any locality, whatever the character of the pasture may be, where 
an industrious and skillful hand, and an observant and intelligent head, pre- 
sides over the operation ; and, on the other hand, the best and richest milk, 
the produce of jDeculiarly favorable pastures, may be spoiled by a slovenly 
and ignorant dairymaid. But inasmuch as the nature of the herbage, as is 
well known, affects the richness, and especially the flavor of the milk, and 
the herbage is sweeter in one locality than another, and at one time of the 
year than at another, it is not likely that the very finest-flavored cheese 
should be made indiscriminately on all land and all the year round. Still, 
after every allowance has been made for these natural peculiarities, it is 
nevertheless true that the various processes Avhich are adopted in different 
countries determine in a great measure the prevailing character of the 
produce, Avhile the want or bestowal of care and attention in making cheese, 
whether it be on the Cheshire, Cheddar or any other plan, materially influ- 
ences the quality of the produce. 

Before I proceed to point out some of the practical errors which are often 
made in the manufacture of cheese, let us examine the composition and chief 
peculiarities of some of the principal kinds made in England. 

English cheese is produced either from milk to Avhich an extra quantity 
of cream has been added, or secondly from the whole-milk, or thirdly from 
milk from which more or less cream has been taken before the addition of 
the rennet. Accordingly we obtain — 
1. Cream-cheeses. 
2a Whole-milk cheeses. 
3. Skim-milk cheeses. 

The first class is made in limited quantities only, and constitutes a luxury 
which is found chiefly in the houses of the wealthy. 

The second is produced in larger quantities ; and the third furnishes our 
chief supply of this important article of food for the working-classes of this 
country. 

To the first class belong Stilton, Cream-Cheddar, and the choicest quality 
of Cother§tone cheese, or Yorkshire Stilton. These, according to their 
quality, fetch more or less a fancy price in the market, as they are made in 
perfection only by few persons, and in limited quantity. 

To the second class belong the best Cheshire, some Cheddar, good Double 
Gloucester, most of the cheese made in the Yale of Berkeley, as well as 
whole-milk cheese produced in Wiltshire and other counties of England. 



304 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



In the third class we meet with ordinary Cheshire, Gloucester, Wiltshire, 
Warwickshire, Shropshire, Leicestershire, and other cheeses made in districts 
where its manufacture is combined with that of butter. 

This division into three classes is to a great extent an arbitrary one, 
adopted more for the sake of convenience than on account of any definite line 
of demarcation. In reality the richer admixture often only compensates for 
the inferiority of the natural product. Thus the best Cheshire and Cheddar 
cheese is frequently as good and rich in butter as Stilton. Again, it is well 
known that in some dairies a richer cheese can be made from the mixed new 
morning's milk and skimmed evening's milk than in others from the whole 
milk. The classification, therefore, does not so much refer to the quality and 
value of the cheese as to the description of milk which is used. 



STILTON AND COTHEESTONE CHEESE. 

The following table embodies tlie results obtained in the analyses of two samples of Stil- 
ton and Collierstoue cLecse : 



"Water , 

Butter (pure fatty matters), 

*Caseiue, 

Milk-sugar and extractive matters, 
f Mineral matters (ash), 

*Oontaining nitrogen, 

fContaining common salt, 



Stilton. 



No. 1. No. 2, 



32.18 

37.36 

24.31 

2.23 

3.93 



100.00 
3.89 



20.27 
43.98 

33.55 

2.20 



100.00 



.29 



cotherstone, ob 
Yorkshire Stilton. 



No. 1. 



38.28 

30.89 

j 23.93 

{ 3.70 

3.20 

100.00 

3.83 

.79 



No. 2. 



38.23 

29.12 

24.38 

2.76 

5.51 

100.00 

3.90 
2.55 



The two Stilton cheeses are very rich in butter, especially the second, which 
contains forty-four per cent, of pure fatty matters ; and as we have in common 
butter from fifteen to eighteen per cent, of water, besides caseine and other 
impurities, the pure fat in the second Stilton represents more than fifty per 
cent, of butter. The first analysis expresses the composition of a rather new 
Stilton. It was sold at one shilling per pound last October. The second 
analysis is that of an old Stilton, selling at fourteen pence per pound. There 
is about twelve per cent, less water in it then in new Stilton: more butter and 
less salt. Notwithstanding the smaller amount of salt, it had a more saline 
taste and much better flavor than the newer cheese. This saline taste is 
generally ascribed to the salt, and complaints are sometimes made by persons 
fond of mild-tasting cheese,' that old cheese, in other respect rich and good, 
has been injured by too much salt. This is a mistake, of which the proof is 
found in the analysis of these two Stilton cheeses. The first was quite mild 
in flavor in comparison with the other, and yet it contained three times as 
much salt as the more saline-tasting older cheese. The fact is, the saline 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



305 



taste is developed during the ripening of cheese ; newly-made cheese, tliough 
strongly salted, is always mild in taste. During the ripening of the clieese a 
portion of the caseine or curd suffers decomposition, and is partially chano-ed 
into ammonia ; the latter, however, does not escape, but combines with seve- 
ral fatty acids formed in the course of time from the butter. Peculiar ammo- 
niacal salts are thus produced, and these, like most other salts of ammonia, 
have a pungent, saline taste. The longer cheese is kept, within reasonable 
limits, the riper it gets ; and as it ripens the proportion of ammoniacat salts, 
with their pungent, saline taste, increases. It can be readily shown that old 
cheese contains a good deal of ammonia in the shape of ammoniacal salts. 
All that is necessary is to pound a piece with some quick lime, when, on the 
addition of a little water, a strong smell of spirits of hartshorn will be devel- 
oped. In well-kept, sound old cheese the ammonia is not free, but exists in the 
form of salts, in which the base is ammonia, in combination with butyric, 
caprinic, caprylic, and other acids, generated under favorable circmnstances 
by thefiits of which butter consists. Ripe cheese, even if very old, but sound, 
instead of containing free ammonia, always exhibits a decidedly acid reaction 
when tested Avith blue litmus paper. Eotten cheese, on the other hand, is 
generally alkaline in its reaction, and contains free ammonia. 

I have made a quantitative determination of the amount of ammonia in 
old Stilton cheese, and found it to amount to 1.81 per cent. 

The first Cotherstone or Yorkshire Stilton was made near Barnard Castle, 
in the Vale of the Tees, and sold at one shilling per pound. It is highly 
esteemed in Durham and Yorkshire; but to my taste, the cheese which I 
analyzed is not to be compared with good, genuine Stilton, nor is it equal in 
flavor to Cheshire or Cheddar. 

Cotherstone cheese, it will be noticed, contains a very much larger pro- 
portion of water than even new Stilton. This imparts to it a smooth and 
apparently rich texture, but the proportion of butter is not really as great as 
it appears to be, nor, in point of fact, equal to that found in an average Ched- 
dar. It has usually a very strong taste, which would be decidedly objected 
to by Cheshire or Gloucestershire factors. In its preparation a good deal of 
whey appears to be left in the curd in mechanical combination, and to be the 
principal cause of the strong taste and smell which are its characteristics, 
and in which, more than any other English cheese, it resembles the foreign 
Rochefort. 

CHESHIRE AND CHEDDAR CHEESE. 

In making best Cheshire and good Cheddar cheese the whole milk is used, 
and cheese generally made but once a day. 

The first analysis illustrates the composition of good ripe, and the second 
that of good new Cheshire cheese. 

Since a good deal of water evaporates in keeping, the proportion of dry 
caseine, of mineral matters, and especially of butter (pure fat), must become 
larger with age. 
^20 



306 



Practical Dairy Eusbandrt. 



The following table shows the composition of two kinds of Cheshire and a number of 
Cheddar cheeses. 



Cheshire 
Cheese. 



No. 1. 

OLD. 



No. 2. 

NEW. 



Cheddar Cheese. 



No. 1. 

OIB. 



No. 2. 

5 MOS. 
OLD- 



No. 3. 

6 MOS. 
OLD. 



No. 4. 



No. 5. 



No. 6. 



Water, 

Butter, 

*Caseine, 

Milk-sugar, lactic acid, and } 

extractive matters, f 

fMineral matters (ash), 

*Containing nitrogen, 

■J-Containiug common salt, 



32.59 
32.51 
26.06 

4.53 

4.31 



100.00 

4.17 
1.59 



36.96 
29.34 

24.08 

5.17 
4.45 



30.32 
35.53 

28.18 

1.66 
4.31 



36.17 
31.83 
24.93 

3.21 

3.86 



100.00 

3.84 
1.91 



100.00 

4.51 
1.55 



100.00 

3.99 

1.18 



31.17 
33.68 
26.31 

4.91 

3.93 



100.00 

4.21 
1.15 



33.92 
33.15 
28.12 

.96 

3.85 

100.00 

4.50 
1.23 



37.85 
28.91 
25.00 

4.91 

3.33 

100.00 

4.00 
.52 



38.43 
23.28 
32.37 

2.10 

3.82 



100.00 

5.18 
.65 



The rich appearance of old cheese, however, is by no means attributable 
entirely to a very large proportion of butter ; nor is the poor condition of 
new or badly-made cheese referable solely to a deficiency of butter. One of 
the chief tests of the skill of the dairymaid is the production of a rich tasting 
and looking, fine-flavored, mellow cheese fi'om milk not particularly rich in 
cream. That this can be done is abundantly proved by the practice of good 
makers. One of the finest Cheddars which I have ever examined is that men- 
tioned as No. 4 in the above table. This was made by Mr. Harding, Marks- 
bury,. Somersetshire, and analyzed by me when about six months old. Like 
all good cheeses, it of course contains a large amount of butter ; though as I 
foimd by experiment, not nearly so large an amount as its appearance, rich 
taste, and fine, mature condition seemed to imply. Though only six months 
old, it had a much more mature appearance than the Cheddar cheese No. 1, 
which was at least eleven months old when analyzed ; and, thanks to Mr. 
Harding's skill and experience, had a much fatter and more mellow appear- 
ance and richer taste than a specimen which actually contained two and a-half 
per cent, more butter. 

Thus we see that the proportion of butter does not entirely determine the 
value of cheese, since a high-priced Cheddar or Cheshire cheese does not 
necessarily contain more butter than another which fetches eight or ten shil- 
lings less per hundredweight in the market. 

In the opinion of good judges the Cheddar cheese No. 1, notwithstanding 
the larger amount of butter, and the smaller amount of water which it con- 
tained, was worth less than No. 4 by one penny per pound — no inconsiderable 
difference in the returns of a dairy to remunerate careful and skillful manage- 
ment. The peculiar mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to some 
extent to the butter which it contains, depends in a higher degree upon a 
gradual transformation which the caseine or curd undergoes in ripening. The 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



307 



curd is hard and insoluble in water, but by degrees it becomes softer and more 
soluble, or, speaking more coirectly, gives rise to products of decomposition 
which are soluble in water. 

Now, if this ripening process is improperly conducted, or the original 
character of the curd is such that it adapts itself but slowly to this transfor- 
mation, the cheese when sold will be, comparatively speaking, tough, and 
appear less rich in butter than it really is ; while in a well-made and properly 
kept cheese, this series of changes will be rapidly and thoroughly effected. 
Proper ripening thus imparts to cheese a rich appearance, and unites with the 
butter in giving it that most desirable property of melting in the mouth. On 
examining some cheese deficient in this melting property, and accordingly 
pronounced by practical judges defective in butter, I nevertheless found in 
them a very high percentage of that substance — clear jDroof that the mellow 
and rich taste of cheese is not entirely, nor indeed chiefly, due to the fatty 
matters which it contains. 

Good Cheshire and Cheddar, on an average, contain about the same quan- 
tity of butter ; but of course inferior cheeses defective in this respect are to 
be found in both localities. The analysis No. 6 shows the composition of 
such an inferior Cheddar. 

DOUBLE AND SIKGLE GLOUCESTER CHEESE. 

Gloucester, especially double Gloucester, is generally sold as a whole-milk 
cheese. It is, however, seldom made of the whole-milk. In most dairies 
more or less of the cream of the milk is made into butter ; but unless the 
whole evening's milk is skimmed and added to the whole new morning's milk 
— in which case the cheese made is " half-coward " — the produce, whether 
single or double, is said to be whole-milk cheese. The distinction of single 
and double Gloucester is one merely of size and thickness, and has nothing to 
do with the quality. 

The following tables embody the results of some analyses of double and single Gloucester 

cheese : 

DOUBLE GLOUCESTER. 



No. 1. 



No. 2. 



No. 3. 



No. 4. 



No. 5. 



No. 6. 



Water, 

Butter, 

*Caseine, 

Milk-siicar, lactic acid, and ex- ) 
tractive matters, J 

f Mineral matters (ash) 

*Containitig nitrogen, 

fContaining common salt, 



32.44 
30.17 
31.75 

1.23 

4.42 



100.00 

5.12 
1.41 



32.80 

27.22 




100.00 



1.27 



38.83 
26.77 
'36.25 




100.00 

4.20 
2.04 



38.14 
24.16 
26.56 

6.40 

4.74 

100.00 

4.25 
1.28 



40.88 
22.81 

31.88 

4.43 



100.00 



1.45 



33.41 
32.69 

27.75 

2.23 
3.92 



100.00 

4.44 
1.01 



308 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

SINGLE GLOUCESTER. 



No. 1. 



No. 2. 



No. 3. 



No. 4. 



No. 5. 



No. 6. 



No. 7. 



Water, 

BnUer, 

*Caseiiie, 

Milk-sugar, laclic acid '\ 
and exlruclive mat- ■ 
tcrs, ) 

f Mineral matters (ash), . . 



*Containing nitrogen,... 
fConlaiiiing common salt 



28.10 
33.68 
30.31 


31.96 
31.37 
29.37 


37.20 
27.30 
24.50 


31.81 
29.20 
26.12 


32.42 
27.42 

1 


37.91 

22.70 

pi. 25 


3.72 


2.85 


7.44 


8.63 


p4.46 


i 3.30 


4.19 


4.45 


3.56 


4.18 


5.70 


4.84 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


4.85 
1.12 


4.70 
1.35 


3.92 

.85 


4.18 
1.50 


' 1.46 


5.00 
1.23 



36.50 
28.75 
25.75 

4.68 

4.33 

100.00 

4.12 
1.38 



The differences in the proportion of water and butter here are A^ery large, 
though probably not greater than will be found in other descriptions of cheese 
on examining a considerable number of specimens. It is worthy of notice 
that the poorer the cheese in butter the more water it usually contains. Thus 
the first sample of double Gloucester, which contained thirty-two and a-half 
per cent, of water, yielded thirty per cent, of butter (pure fat), while the 
third sample, containing neai'ly thirty-nine per cent, of water, yielded twenty- 
seven per cent., and the fifth sample, with nearly forty-one per cent, of water, 
scarcely twenty-three per cent, of butter. 

These analyses show that the distinction made between double and single 
Gloucester has no reference to quality. Indeed, the first analysis in the table 
of the single Gloucester shows that thin cheeses are made which are as rich 
in butter as any of the best Cheddar and Cheshire cheeses. No. 1 and No. 
6 in the list of double Gloucester, and Nos. 1, 2, and 4 in the table of single 
Gloucester, alike establish this equality. Nevertheless the price that is paid 
for thin, ^^e., single Gloucester of excellent quality, was only seventy shillings 
per hundred weight, while Cheddar, not richer in butter, and containing 
nearly as much water, sold at ninety shillings per hundred weight. The 
latter, of course, was well-made and nicely flavored cheese, and nearly four 
months old, while the single Gloucester was only two months old. Still, 
making every allowance for loss in weight on keeping for two months longer, 
the difference in the price at which both were sold, amounting to exactly £1, 
leaves a handsome balance in favor of a system which I have no doubt will 
come more and more into favor. 

We have here again presented to us striking examples showing that 
the difference in the quality and. price of the cheese is not dependent 
merely on the richness or poverty of the milk, but that the process of 
manufacture exerts a decided and direct influence on its value. Dif- 
ferent plans now followed have unquestionably various degrees of merit, 
but in our present state of knowledge it would be premature to lay down 
any absolute rule. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



309 



LEICESTERSHIRE, WARWICKSHIRE AND WILTSHIRE CHEESE. 

Some excellent cheese is made iu Leicestershire and Warwickshire, Lut 
the generality of the produce of these two counties does not rank equally 
high with Cheshire, Cheddar, or even Gloucester cheese. 

Some parts of Wilts are celebrated for their rich pastures, and for an 
excellent delicate-flavored kind of cheese. In other parts of the county a 
good deal of butter is made, and here, as in all districts where much butter 
is made and dairy farms are small, the cheese produced is of an inferior 
character. 

Whole milk cheese, I believe, is not generally made iu Wiltshire, although 
in North Wilts a good deal is sold as such in the market. 

Wiltshire and Gloucester cheese is commonly colored with annatto, while 
that made in Leicestershire and Warwickshire is mostly uncolored. 

The following table shows the composition of some specimens from the three counties to 
which I hiive just referred : 

COMPOSITION OF LEICESTERSHIRE, WARWICKSHIRE, AND WILTSHIRE CHEESE. 





Leicester. 


Warwickshire, 


Wiltshire. 




No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 1. 

31.97 

29.08 
27.43 

7.16 

4.36 


i;o. 2. 


No .3. 


No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


Water, 


35.21 

27.28 
27.93 

5.54 

4.04 


32.89 
29.28 
29.06 

4.42 

4.35 


33.61 
30.04 
29.70 

1.95 

5.60 


33.53 
30.89 
28.19 

2.84 

4.55 


34.44 

28.71 
29.00 

3.60 

4.25 


39.22 
19.26 
34.22 

2.28 

5.02 


40 07 


Butter, 


25 55 


*Caseine, 


26 81 


Milk-sugar, lac'Jc acid, and \ 

extractive matter, f 

+Miueral matters (ash), 


2.24 
5 33 






*Containing nitrogen, 


100.00 

4.47 
1.03 


100.00 

4.65 
1.21 


100.00 

4.39 

.72 


100.00 

4.74 

2.78 


100.00 

4.51 
1.12 


100.00 

4.64 
1.03 


100.00 

5.38 
.60 


100.00 
4 29 


fConlaining common salt, 


1.14 



The first analysis was made of an uncolored Leicestershire cheese, sold retail 
at ninepence per pound. The second was a much better specimen from the 
same county. The latter, it will be seen, is drier and richer than the former. 

The difference in the composition of the three Warwickshire cheeses is not 
great. In all three the proportions of water, butter and caseine do not vary 
more than two and a-half per cent. The greatest difference is observable in 
the amount of salt used. In the second specimen we have nearly three per 
cent, of salt, a proportion far above the average, and the cheese was to a cer- 
tain extent spoiled by this excess. I would direct special attention to this, 
which I knoAV from experience is not a solitary instance. For no description 
of cheese, should more than two pounds of salt per hundred, weight be used, 
and one and a-half pound per hundred weight will, I believe, in most cases be 
sufficient. This was l)y no means a good cheese ; it had a strong taste, and 
was sold as common Warwickshire cheese. This and the third were uncolored, 
and the flavor of the latter, as well as its texture and shape, was very good 
indeed. 



310 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



The first analysis was made of a colored cheese which was sold as "best 
Warwickshire ; apparently it was an old and very much richer cheese than 
No. 2, but on analysis it was found actually to contain one per cent, less butter 
than the common cheese of the same name, thus giving another instance of the 
fact that good materials are often spoiled by unskillful management. 

Of the three Wiltshire cheeses No. 1 was decidedly the best flavored, 
and, as will be seen, also the richest. No. 2 and No. 3 contained too much 
water, showing that the whey had not been carefully pressed out, and when 
this has been the case the cheese is very apt to heave and to acquire a strong 
taste. No. 2 is very poor in butter, and, although not sold as skim-milk cheese 
for all I know may have been made of skimmed milk. 

SKIM-MILK CHEESE. 

Milk varies so much in quality that in one dairy a better and richer cheese 
can be made from milk which has been skimmed than in another where only 
the evening milk is skimmed and added to the whole new morning's milk. 

The following analyses clearly bring out this important practical fact, but 
they also show that, as a rule, skimmed milk does not produce a good cheese : 

COMPOSITION OF SKIM-MILK CHEESE. 





No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. .3. 


No. 4. 


No. 5. 


AVuter 


27.68 
30.80 
35.12 

1.46 

4.94 


39.43 
27.08 
30.37 

.22 

2.90 


38.39 
23.21 

28.37 

6.80 
3.23 


43.87 
15.89 
28.93 

6.47 

4.84 


45.39 

9.97 

33.13 

6.39 

5.13 


Butter 


*Caseine 


Milk-sugar, lactic acid, and extractive ) 

ninlters f 

fMineral matters (ash) 




*Caseine nitrogen 


100.00 

5.62 
1.27 


100.00 

4.86 
.23 


100.00 

4.54 
.33 


100.00 

4.63 
1.66 


100.00 

5.34 
1.51 


f Containing conimon salt 





With the exception of No. 4, which was bought in a shop at Cirencester 
as skim-milk cheese at seven pence per pound, the other cheese, the composi- 
tion of which is here given, were either made under my direction or accord- 
ing to a plan with which I was made acquainted. 

No. 1, it will be noticed, though made from skim-milk, is as rich in butter 
as good Cheshire cheese. It was rather more than six months old before it 
was analysed, when its quality was pronounced by several good judges to be 
excellent ; superior, indeed, to most of the Gloucester cheese which I have 
ever tasted. 

No. 2 and No. 3, though not equal to No. 1, after keeping for six months 
turned out very good cheeses indeed. 

No. 4, it will be seen, contained only sixteen per cent, of butter, in round 
numbers, and nearly forty-four per cent, of water. If such cheese can be 
sold at seven pence per pound, and butter at one shilling to one shilling 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



311 



four pence per pound, I can well understand that it must pay a farmer to 
make nothing but skim-milk cheese and to convert all the cream into butter. 
No. 5 was made of milk skimmed at least three times, and sold on the 
farm where it was made to the laborers at three pence per pound. Such 
cheese cannot be kept for any great length of time, for it soon gets so hard 
and horn-like that a pickax must be used to break it into pieces. 

AMEKICAN CHEESE. 

Of late years a good deal of cheese has been imported into England from 
America, some of which is by no means bad : indeed one or two specimens 
which came under my notice were excellent in quality. The majority, how- 
ever, are inferior, and are sold at a low price, being generally badly made 
and deficient in flavor. 

The following Table gives the composition of American cheeses : 

COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN CHEESE. 



Water, 

Butter, 

*Caseiiie, 

Milk-sugar, lactic acid and extractive matters,. 
fMiueral matters (ash), 



*Containing nitrogen, 

fCoutainiug common salt,. 



No. 1. 



37.29 

35.41 

25.87 

6.31 

5.23 



100.00 

4.14 
1.97 



No. 2 



No. 3. 



33.04 
33.38 
37.37 

2.82 
3.39 



100.00 

4.38 
.47 



31.01 
30.90 
26.25 

7.43 
4.41 

100.00 



No. 4. 



38.24 

26.05 

36.81 

3.64 

5.36 

100.00 

4.39 
1.94 



No. 1 was as nice a cheese as could be desired ; in flavor it much resem- 
bled good Cheddar, and was found to contain even a higher proportion of 
butter and rather less water than good Cheddar. 

The second cheese, though rich in butter, was retailed at seven pence per 
pound, and the third at only six pence per pound. Both were deficient in 
flavor and badly made. 

The fourth cheese was the worst of the four, and had to be sold at five 
pence per pound. It was full of holes, badly made, and had a very strong 
smell. It was evident that the whey was not carefully pressed out in the 
making. 

The examination of these and other American cheeses leads me to the 
conclusion, judging from our imports, that good materials are even more 
thoroughly spoiled on the other side of the Atlantic than in England. 

Let me next direct attention to some of the principal mistakes which are 
not unfrequently committed in the manufacture of cheese. I have said in the 
beginning of this paper — 1st, that cheese is sometimes spoiled even before it 
is separated from the milk ; 2dly, that it is yet more frequently spoiled in the 
act of making ; and, lastly, that it is sometimes deteriorated by bad keeping 
after it has been made. 



512 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

I. PRACTICAL >nSTAK:ES HADE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEESE BEFORE 

THE CURD IS SEPARATED. 

The inferior character, and especially the bad flavor, of cheese OAves its 
origin in many cases to a want of proper care in handling the milk from 
which it has been made. Milk sometimes gets spoiled by dirty fingers before 
it passes into the pail. If the vessels in which the milk is kept in the dairy 
have been carelessly washed, and the milk-pails and cheese-tub have not been 
well scrubbed, but merely been washed out, and if especially the dairy uten- 
sils have not been scalded Avith boiling-hot water, it is vain to expect that 
cheese of th« finest quality can be made, let the milk be ever so ricli in cream. 
The neglect of these simple but important precautions soon manifests itself 
in a dairy by a peculiar ferment which taints tlie whole milk, and afterwards 
affects the flavor and consequently the quality of the cheese. Cleanliness, 
indeed, may be said to be the first qualification of a good dairywoman. 

The nature of every ferment is to produce in other matters with which it 
comes into contact certain chemical changes depending on its own character. 
Thus a little yeast produces in fermentable liquids large quantities of alcohol 
and carbonic acid ; acid ferments containing acetic or lactic acid have a ten- 
dency to generate vinegar or lactic acid in other liquids. A small piece of 
putrefying meat in contact with a large mass of sound flesh soon spreads 
putrefaction over the entire mass ; and other ferments act in a similar man- 
ner. "Such ferments generally produce in other matters with which they are 
brought into contact changes similar to those which they themselves undergo. 
The disagreaable smell of dirty or badly cleaned milk-pails and cheese-tubs is 
due to a peculiar ferment, which is rapidly formed, especially in warm 
weather, when milk is left in contact with air and with the porous wood of 
the cheese-tub and milk-pails. In the rapid process of vinegar manufacture 
a weak alcoholic liquid is allowed to trickle through a barrel perforated all 
over Avith holes to admit the air, and filled Avith Avood shavings. If the tem- 
perature of the room in Avhich the vinegar casks are put up is sufiiciently high, 
the alcohol, in trickling over these shavings Avhen in contact with abundance 
of air, undergoes a complete transformation, and collects rapidly at the 
bottom of the cask as vinegar. But such a change does not take place if the 
alcoholic liquid is left for ever so long in a clean cask filled Avith such a 
liquid. Contact Avith air, subdivision of the liquid into drops, and the pres- 
ence of the porous wood shavings, are necessary for the transformation. 
These casks do not at first produce vinegar as rapidly as after they have been 
in use some time and become thoroughly soaked with vinegar ferment. And 
this is another peculiarity of all ferments, that, under favorable circumstances, 
they reproduce themselves from other materials in immense quantities. Thus 
fresh and active yeast is generated in great abundance in fermenting malt 
liquor, while the original yeast employed in brcAving is more or less decom- 
posed and becomes what is called inactive yeast. These chemical facts, well 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 313 

known to the manufacturers of vinegar and to the intelligent brewer, have a 
direct bearing on cheese making. 

At the very beginning of her operations a good dairy woman unconsciously 
carries on a steady and constant battle with these remarkable ferments, and 
it is very interesting to the chemist to see her proceed in the most rational 
and 23hilosophical manner. 

No milk is admitted into the cheese-tub before it has been carefully 
strained through a cloth, lest a little bit of dead leaf or any similar matter, 
accidentally blown into the milk in its passage from the milking place to the 
dairy, should spoil the flavor of the cheese. No sooner has the cheese left 
the tub than she begins to pour scalding water into it, to scrub it, and to 
make it as clean and sweet as i^ossible. In good dairies no utensil is allowed 
to remain for a moment dirty, but hot water and clean brushes are always 
close at hand to scrub the pails and make them almost as white as snow. 
The dairywoman probably knows nothing about the nature of the ferment, 
which is rapidly formed when a little milk is left at the bottom and adhering 
to the sides of the wooden milk pails ; she is unconscious that here, as in the 
vinegar process, the conditions most favorable to chemical change are present, 
and that the sugar of the milk, in contact with plenty of air and porous wood, 
is rapidly changed into lactic acid, while at the same time a peculiar milk 
ferment is produced ; all this may be a jjerfect mystery to her, but, never- 
theless, guided by experience, she thoroughly avoids everything that favors 
the production of ferment, or taint, as she calls it, by leaving no vessel 
uncleaned, by scalding all that have been in use with boiling water, and if 
ever so little milk be accidentally spilt on the floor of the dairy, taking 
care that it is at once removed, and the spot where it fell washed with 
clean water. 

It is, indeed, surprising how small a quantity of ferment taints a large 
quantity of milk. The most scrupulous cleanliness, therefore, is brought into 
constant play by a good dairywoman, who never minds any amount of trouble 
in scalding and scrubbing her vessels, and takes pride, as soon as possible 
after her cheeses are safely lodged in the presses, in having the dairy look as 
clean and tidy as the most fastidious can wish. It is a pleasure to see one 
of these hard-working women at work, especially as such a sight is not often 
witnessed, slovenly dairymaids being unfortunately in a majority. This 
being the case, we should encourage the use of tin pails and tin or brass 
cheese tubs. Wooden pails, &c., are very good in the hands of a tidy dairy- 
maid, but not otherwise. There is much less labor in thoroughly cleaning a 
tin or brass vessel than a wooden one, and boiling-hot Avater is not then 
required. Wood, being a porous material, inevitably absorbs more or less of 
the milk ; tin or brass does not. The milk thus absorbed cannot be removed 
by simple washing. Inasmuch as all ferments are destroyed by water at the 
temperature of 212°, it is important to ascertain that the water is perfectly 
boiling ; and yet it is strange that few women, comparatively speaking, 



314 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

though they may have spent many years in the kitchen, know to a certainty 
when the kettle is really boiling. This remark applies to some educated as 
well as uneducated females. They often mistake the singing noise of the tea- 
kettle accompanied by a certain amount of vapor for a sign that water is in 
a state of ebullition ; so that if you would drink good tea you must be careful 
to whom you trust to make it. 

In some dairies of Cheshire it is customary to paint the wooden cheese 
tubs in the interior. I confess I do not like this at all; lead paint is 
not a very desirable thing to be used in connection with cheese; and I 
am glad to find that the best dairy farmers are decidedly averse to this 
proceeding. * 

Milk sometimes gets tainted by the close proximity of pig-sties or water- 
closets, or by underground drains. Not very long ago I visited a dairy in 
Wiltshire, where every possible care was taken by the dairymaid to produce 
good cheese ; but I noticed a peculiarly disagreeable smell in the dairy, and 
on making inquiries I found that there was a cesspool close at hand, which 
certainly tainted the mill:, and rendered the making of good cheese an impos- 
sibility. In the third place, I would notice that if dairies are not well situ- 
ated,— if they have, for instance, a south aspect, so that a proper low temper- 
ature in summer cannot be maintained,— the milk is apt to turn sour and to 
make sour cheese. It is important, therefore, that dairies should be built 
with a northei'n aspect. 

These are some of the circumstances that spoil the cheese even before it 
is separated from the milk. The remedies are obvious. It is only with 
respect to the latter point— that of milk getting sour, that I would offer a few 
observations. If the situation of the dairy is bad, and a new dairy cannot be 
erected, we should employ all possible means to prevent the milk from getting 
warm. We should keep it in shallow tins or leads, or, better still, as I have 
seen in some parts of Somersetshire, in shallow tin vessels with a double bot- 
tom, through which cold water may be run during the warm part of the sea- 
son. By this means we can keep the milk at a considerably lower tempera- 
ture than we should otherwise be able to do. Having seen nitre and salt used 
with great advantage to prevent cream from turning sour, I would further 
suggest that they might probably be found serviceable in the same manner 
for the keeping of milk if used in moderate quantities. Some people, how- 
ever, maintain that milk requires to become sour before it can properly be made 
into cheese. A great deal has been said and written with respect to the great 
utility to the dairymen of an instrument by means of which the amount of 
acid in sour milk might be accurately and readily determined. A careful 
study of the action of rennet on milk, however, has led me to the conclusion 
that the more carefully milk is prevented from getting sour, and, consequently 
the less opportunity there is for the use of an acidometer, the more likely the 
cheese is to turn out good. Indeed, the acidometer appears to me a useless 
instrument— a scientific toy which can never be turned to any practical account. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 315 

If by accident the milk has become sour, the fact soon manifests itself suffi- 
ciently to the taste. An experienced dairymaid will even form a tolerably 
good opinion of the relative proportions of acid in the milk on different days 
and arrange her proceedings accordingly. Moreover, the knowledge of the 
precise amount of acid in the milk does not help us much. When milk has 
turned sour, the best thing to do is to hasten on the process of cheese-making 
as much as possible. 

II. PKACTICAL FAUI^S COMMITTED DUEING THE MAKING OF CHEESE. 

1. Under the second head I would observe, first, that sufficient care is not 
bestowed upon noticing the temjDcrature at which the milk is " set," or " run," 
as it is called in Gloucestershire. Thermometers, indeed, are seldom in use. 
Even where they are hung up in the dairy, they are more frequently regarded 
as curious but useless ornaments than trustworthy guides, and therefore are 
seldom put into requisition. In fact, most dairymaids are guided entirely by 
their own feelings ; and as these are as variable as those of other mortals, the 
temperature of the milk when it is " set " (that is where the rennet is added) 
is often either too high or too low. They mostly profess to know the tem- 
perature of the milk to a nicety, and feel almost insulted if you tell them that 
much less reliance can be placed on the indications of ever so experienced a 
hand than upon an instrument which contracts and expands according to a 
fixed law, uninfluenced by the many disturbing causes to which a living body 
is necessarily subjected. 

It is really amusing to see the animosity with which some people look upon 
the thermometer. It is true that there are not many dairies in which it may 
not be found ; but if we took pains to ascertain in how many of these it is in 
constant use, I believe that the proportion would not exceed five per cent. 
This is a great pity, for a tolerably good one can now be bought or replaced 
at a trifling cost. 

I have spoken frankly but unfavorably of the acidometer. With equal 
frankness I express my regret that the use of the thermometer is not 
more general, as I believe it is indispensable for obtaining a uniformly 
good product. 

If the temperature of the milk when the rennet is added, is too low, the 
curd remains too soft, and much difficulty is experienced in separating the 
whey. If, on the other hand, the temperature is too high, the separation is 
easily effected, but the curd becomes hard and dry. The amount of water 
which is left in the curd when it is ready to go into the cheese-presses, to some 
extent indicates whether a proper temperature has been employed. When 
this has been too low, the curd will contain more than fifty per cent, of mois- 
ture ; when too high, sometimes less than thirty-six per cent. How variable 
is this proportion of water (chiefly due to the whey in the curd) will appear 
from the following determinations made in the same dairy on the four follow- 
ing days : 



316 



Practical Dairy Husba^^dry. 

amount of water in curd when ready to go into the vat. 

Percentage of water iu 1st Ciieese ,^f.o 

" 2d Cheese 41 4Q 

" " 3d Cheese SR 20 

" 4LhCheese '•■'■^•^^^^^^"''^^'^.^m 

In this dairy the thermometer was not in daily use, and the heat employed 
m makmg the fourth cheese was evidently too high, for in good Cheddar 
when ready for sale the amount of moisture is hardly less than in this curd 
when put into the vat. The cheese from these four specimens of curd was 
made according to the Cheddar system. Five other specimens gave the fol- 
lowmg proportions of water : 

PERCENTAGE OP WATER IN CURD WHEN READY TO GO INTO THE VAT. 

1st specimen, percentage of water 5957 

2d " " « 

f' „ 56.93 

.„ „ 53.40 

ff " " 5280 

'''' " " " 50.01 

These were produced according to the custom of Gloucestershire and 
Wiltshire, at a temperature varying from 72= to 75°; but, not having taken 
the observations myself, I am unable to speak more precisely. This much, 
however, is quite certain, that the lower temperature at which the cheese is 
usually made in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, when compared with the 
Cheddar system, fully accounts for the large proportion of water that is 
found in curd made after the Gloucester or Wiltshire fashion. The cheese 
made from these five curds was best at the dairy in which I found the lowest 
proportion of water in the curd. The differences here noticed, however, are 
due not only to the higher or lower temperature employed, but also to the 
ti-ouble and the time bestowed in breaking up the curd. Other circumstances 
being equal, the more thoroughly curd is broken up, and the longer time is 
occupied in this process, the more whey will pass out, and the better the 
cheese is likely to become. I consider fifty per cent, of moisture rather 
under the average, and fifty-three to fifty-four per cent, a proper quantity of 
water to be contained in the curd when it is vatted to form a thin or moder- 
ately thick cheese. In making thick cheese, it should not have more than 
forty-five per cent of moisture. Fifty-seven or fifty-nine and a-half per cent., 
the proportions of water in the first and second specimens of curd, are too 
high even for a thin cheese. 

Curd being a very peculiar and delicate substance, which is greatly 
affected by the temperature to which it is exposed, I directed some special 
experiments to the investigation of its properties. First, I coagulated new 
milk at 60' Fahrenheit, and found that at such a low temperature it took 
three hours to complete the process, though the rennet was added in a very 
large excess. The curd remained tender, and the whey could not be properly 
separated. Milk at 65° F., on addition of rennet, curdled in two hours ; but 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 317 

the curd, as before, remained tender, even after long standing. At 70° to 
72° F. it only took from one-half to three-quarters of an hour, and the curd 
now separated in a more compact condition. The process was more expe- 
ditions, and the curd in better condition, when the temperature ranged from 
80° to 84°. At 90° the rennet curdled the milk in twenty minutes, and at 
100° F. an excess of rennet coagulated the milk in about a quarter of an 
hour, separating the curd in a somewhat close condition. By heating the 
curd in the whey to 130° F., I find it gets so soft that it runs like toasted 
cheese, and becomes quite hard on cooling. The limits of temperature 
between which curd can be improved and deteriorated in texture are there- 
fore not very wide. The exact temperature to be adopted depends upon the 
description of cheese that is wanted — a lower range, e. g. 72° to 75°, being 
desirable when a thin cheese is made ; while for tinck cheese, such as Ched- 
dar, it should vary from 80° to 84°; 80° being best adapted to warm 
weather, and a little increase in the heat desirable in the cold season. After 
a portion of the whey has been separated, it is advisable to scald the curd 
and to raise the temperature of the whole contents of the cheese-tub to 95° 
or 100°, but certainly not higher. I have seen much injury done to cheese 
by using too high a temperature in the making. 

Secondly, apart from this influence of temperature, cheeses are often 
deteriorated by the frequently imperfect separation of the whey from the 
curd ; by hurrying on too much the operation of breaking ; and by too great 
an anxiety to get the curd vatted. The whey requires time to drain off 
properly, and hence the Somersetshii-e plan is a good one — to expose the 
curd for some time to the air, after it has been sufficiently broken and been 
gathered again and cut in slices of moderate size. A great deal of whey 
runs off, and the curd, moreover, is cooled, and runs less risk of heating too 
much after it leaves the presses. 

When the whey has been ill-separated from the curd, no amount of press- 
ure will squeeze out the excesss of whey, which then causes the cheese to 
heave and blister, and imparts to it a somewhat sweet and at the same time 
strong taste. This taste is always found in an ill-shaped cheese, which bulges 
out at the sides, the interior of which will be found to be full of cavities, and 
far from uniform in texture. Many cheeses imported from America are evi- 
dently spoiled in this way, for they are often full of holes, have a strong 
smell, and contain too much moisture — sure indications that the whey was 
not pi'operly sepai'ated. The sweet taste is given to the cheese by part of 
the sugar of milk, of which a good deal is found in whey ; another portion 
of this, on entering into fermentation, foi-ms, among other products, carbonic 
acid gas, which, in its endeavor to escape, heaves up the semi-solid curd, and 
causes it to blister, producing the numerous apertures of considerable size 
which are found in badly-made cheese. If the cheese is colored with annatto, 
the excess of whey at the same time causes a partial separation of the color- 
ing matter, so that more color collects in some parts than in others, and the 



318 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

cheese assumes that unequal condition in which it is called tallowy. A uni- 
form color and perfect shape are therefore to a certain extent indications of a 
superior quality ; while mottled, mis-shaped cheese, almost invariably proves 
tallowy, and in flavor, sweet when young, and very strong when older. The 
danger of leaving too much whey in the curd is especially great in warm 
weather, for it is then that the fermentation of the sugar of milk proceeds 
most rapidly. 

There are three precautions to be taken against an undue proportion of 
whey in the curd : 

1. Plenty of time should be allowed for the whey to drain off properly. 

2. Before the rennet is added, the milk should be heated to a temperature 
of 72° to 75° for thin, or of 80® to 84° for thick cheese. 

3. The best preventive is the practice of slip-scalding, as it is called. The 
operation, which is highly recommended by Mr. Harding, one of our best 
Cheddar cheese-makers, and extensively practised in Somersetshire, consists 
of heating a portion of the whey, and adding it or hot water to the curd, 
while it is still covered with some of the whey, until the temperature of the 
whole be raised to from 95° to 100°. This has the effect of making the curd 
run together into a much smaller compass, and enables the dairymaid to draw 
off the whey more perfectly and with very much less trouble than by the 
common method. If well done, no injury, but every advantage, results from 
this practice. The curd, when slip-scalded, settles down very readily, and 
its closer condition implies that it does not contain so much whey as it did 
before scalding. Hence, no skewers are required to drain off the whey from 
cheese that has been slip-scalded, and a great deal of subsequent labor and 
anxiety is avoided by this simple process. Slip-scalding, however, ought to 
be carefully performed, and the hot whey or water poured slowly upon the 
curd by one person, while another stirs up the contents of the cheese-tub, so 
as to ensure a uniform temperature throughout. The necessity for these pre- 
cautions will be best understood from the following explanation : When curd 
broken up and cut into slices, is suddenly and incautiously scalded with boil- 
ing water, the outer layer of the slices first melts and then becomes hard, 
enveloping the interior, which remains quite soft and full of whey. This 
hard covering acts like a waterproof wrapper, and prevents the escape of the 
whey, however strongly the curd may be pressed afterwards; hence the 
importance of a gradual and careful admixture of the hot whey. Better still 
is it to employ one of Coquet's jacketed tin or brass cheese-tubs, into the 
hollow bottom of which steam may be let in, and the curd and whey be 
raised by degrees to the desired temperature. This utensil is to be strongly 
recommended to all who adopt the Cheddar mode of cheese-making in their 
dairies. 

Cheese is also spoiled by breaking up the curd too rapidly and carelessly. 
This delicate substance requires to be handled by nimble and experienced 
fingers, and to have a great amount of patient labor bestowed upon it. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



319 



Daii-ymaids, as a class, break up the curd in far too great a hurry. In conse- 
quence of their careless treatment some portions of the curd are broken into 
fragments so small that they pass into the Avhey when this is drawn off, while 
others are not sufficiently broken up and remain soft. The result is, that the 
curd is not uniform in texture, and that less cheese and of inferior quality is 
produced than when the curd is first cut very gently into large slices, and then 
broken up by degrees either by hand or machinery into small fragments. 

COMPOSITION OF WHEY. 



No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


92.95 
.65 


92.65 
.68 


92.60 
.55 


92.75 
.39 


1.20 


.81 


.96 


.87 


4.55 
.65 


5.28 
.58 


5.08 
.81 


5.13 

.86 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


.19 

.48 


.13 
.41 


.15 
.36 


5.14 
.41 



No. 5. 



Water, 

Butter (pure fatty matters), 

*Nitrogeiious substances (caseine and al- } 

bnmen, f 

fMilk-siigar and lactic acid, 

Mineral matter (ash), 



*Containing nitrogen, 

fContaining free lactic acid,. 



92.950 
.490 

1.425 

4.491 
.644 

100.000 

.228 
.120 



No. 6. 



No. 7. 



No. 8. 



No. 9. 



No. 10. 



"Water, 

Butter (pure fatty matters), 

*Nitrogenous substances (caseine and al- 
bumen, 

fMilk-sugar and lactic acid 

Mineral matters (ash), 



92.95 
.29 

1.01 

5.08 
.67 



93.150 

.546 

1.056 

4.662 

.586 



92.95 

.24 

.81 

5.27 
.73 



93.30 
.31 

1.01 

4.68 
.70 



*Containing nitrogen, 

fContaining free lactic acid,. 



100.00 

.16 
.54 



100.000 

.169 

None. 



100.00 

.131 
.39 



100.00 

.16 

.41 



93.25 
.26 

.91 

4.70 



100.00 

.148 
.41 





No. 11. 


No. 12. 


No. 13. 


No. 14. 


No. 15. 


"Water 


92.85 
.29 

.93 

5.03 
.90 


93.35 
.25 

.91 

5.00 
.49 


92.70 

.31 

.96 
5.31 

.72 


93.15 

.14 

.91 

5.06 

.74 


93.10 


Butter (pure fatty matters) 


.14 


*Nitrogenous substances (caseine and al- ) 
bumen, ) 


.76 
5.31 




.69 






*Containinf nitrogen, 


100.00 

.151 
.60 


100.00 

.148 
.43 


100.00 

.15 
.40 


100.00 

.148 
.48 


100.00 
.123 


fContaiuin"' free lactic acid, 


.46 







The whey which separates from curd that has been gently broken up is as 
bright as Rhenish wine, provided the milk has been curdled at the proper 
temperature by a sufficient quantity of good rennet. On the other hand, if 
the curd has been broken up carelessly in too great a hurry, the whey is more 
or less milky, and separates on standing, a large quantity of fine curd of the 
choicest character, for this fine curd is very rich in butter. Thus the best 



320 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



part of the ciird, instead of becoming incorporated Avith the cheese, finds its 
way into the whey leads. Be the curd, however, broken up ever so gently, 
and tlie whey drawn off ever so carefully, the latter always throws up, on 
standino;, some cream, which it is worth while to make into butter. But the 
quantity of whey butter made in good dairies is very insignificant in com- 1 
parison with that produced where less attention is paid to the breaking of the 
curd. I know it to be a fact, that in some dairies four times as much whey 
butter is made as in others. Where much whey butter is made the cheese is 
seldom of first-rate quality. Believing that this is a matter of some import- 
ance, I have visited many dairies, and repeatedly watched dairymaids break- 
ing the curd, and noticed the gentle, patient manner in which a clever woman 
goes to work, and the hurried, dashing proceedings of a slovenly girl. On 
these occasions I have taken samples of the whey, and submitted them after- 
wards to analysis. The results, as recorded in the preceding tables, show 
how much the whey of different dairies varies in chemical composition as 
well as in physical character. 

COMPOSITION OF WHET TAKEN AT THREE DIFFERENT PERIODS. 



Water, 

Butler (purefal) 

■^Albviiiiiiioiis compounds,. 
Milk-simiir and liictic acid, 
Miueralmatters (ash), 

*Containing nitrogen, 



No. 16. 

1st SAMPLE. 



92.90 

.18 

.94 

5.30 

.68 



100.00 
.15 



No. 17. 

2d SAMPLE, 
TAKEN 10 MINUTES 
AFTER 1st SAMPLE. 



92.25 

.18 

.94 

5.03 

.60 



100.00 
.15 



No. 18. 

3d SAMPLE, 
TAKEN 20 MINUTES 
APTER 1st SAMPLE. 



93.55 

.03 

.94 

4.83 

.66 



100.00 
.15 



When it is remembered that milk of good quality contains from three 
and a-half to four per cent, of butter, it will be readily seen that where 
samples of whey contain more than one-half per cent, of butter, the cheese 
is deprived of a very considerable portion of its most valuable constituent, 
and that its quality must therefore depend in a great measure on the care 
with Avhich the curd is broken up and the manner in which the whey is 
drawn off. In some samples the amount of butter is so trifling that it is not 
considered worth the trouble to gather the cream and to make whey-butter. 
In the dairies in which this happy state of things exists excellent cheese is 
made. When the whey first separates from the curd it is always more or 
less turbid, but by degrees it becomes clearer ; and if sufficient time is 
allowed, and it is then tapped off without disturbing the curd, it runs off 
almost as clear as water. By this means nearly the whole of the butter may 
be retained in the cheese. In order to place this beyond a doubt, I exam- 
ined the whey which Mr. Keevil, the inventor of the excellent cheese-making 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 321 

apparatus which bears his name, allowed me to take on the occasion of a 
visit which I recently paid to his dairy farm at Laycock, near Chippenham. 
One sample of whey was taken at the stage in which it was usually tapped 
off in Mr. Keevil's dairy ; the second when the whey had become a little 
brighter, about ten minutes after the first ; and the third about twenty 
minutes after the first. It then was as clear as water. These three samples 
when analyzed gave results as shown on preceding page. 

The first two samples are almost identical in composition j they both 
contain very little butter, but, small as that quantity is,, it can be further 
reduced to a mere trace by letting the whey stand a little longer. In prac- 
tice it may for other reasons not be desirable to let the whey stand at rest 
quite so long as the third sample stood ; and a dairymaid may congi*atulate 
herself when she succeeds in breaking up the curd so carefully that the whey 
contains as little butter as that made under Mr, Keevil's personal direction 
and excellent management. 

It may perhaps be supposed that the successful manner in which the 
butter is retained in the cheese in Mr. Keevil's dairy is entirely due to the 
use of his patent apparatus, and that by its introduction any dairymaid may 
be enabled to make good cheese. But this supposition is not correct. 
Keevil's apparatus, useful and good as it is in many respects, is no safe- 
guard against carelessness. Cheese is spoiled with, as well as without it. 
It does not supersede patience and skill, but its merit consists in saving a 
great deal of hard labor and time. Beyond this, I may say, without dis- 
paragement to his ingenious contrivances for breaking the curd, straining 
off the whey, and other appliances, that it effects nothing which may not be 
done by hand. But this saving of time and hard labor is a great merit in 
an apparatus which can be bought at no great cost. Where from thirty to 
forty milking cows are kept, it may be safely recommended ; in smaller 
dairies there may not be sufficient vise for it. Having made frequent trial of 
Keevil's apparatus, I am anxious that its true merits should be known, but 
no unreasonable expectations be entertained. It has been said that it makes 
more and better cheese than can be made by hand. My own opinion is, that 
it makes neither more or less, neither better or worse cheese than a skillful 
dairymaid will make by hand, and that a careless one is as likely to spoil 
her cheese when using this apparatus as when making it according to her 
own fashion. 

Some of the very best and some of the very worst of cheeses which I 
have examined were made in dairies where Keevil's apparatus is in daily 
use. The superior character of the one cheese is as little a proof of the 
merits of Keevil's apparatus as is the bad quality of the other an evidence 
against it. 

Again, I may point to the composition of the whey analyses marked No. 
2, No. 3, No. 8 and No. 14, in the preceding large table, and to the three 
whey analyses to which I have just referred : 
21 



322 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

No. 3, containing .68 per cent, of butter, was made from curd taken by Keeytl's 
apparatus. 

No. 16, containing .18 per cent, of butter, was made from curd taken by Keevil's 
apparatus. 

No. 18, containing .03 per cent, of butter, was made from curd taken by Keevil's 
apparatus. 

Here, then, we have two samples of whey very poor in butter, and one 
sample containing more butter than any of the seventeen which I analyzed. 
On the other hand : 

No. 3, containing .55 per cent, of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. 
No. 8, containing .24 per cent, of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. 
No. 14, containing .14 per cent, of butter, was made from curd broken by hand. 

Here, again, we have two well-separated samples of whey, and one rich in 
butter, all three being made from curd broken by hand. 

Passing on from the loss of butter to that of the curd itself, I find that, 
although no doubt some fine curd is lost when the whey is very milky in 
appearance, yet as a rule this loss is small in most dairies. Indeed, my 
analyses prove positively that whey seldom contains much caseine or curd 
which might be retained by ever so careful filti-ation. I have filtered whey 
from good milk through the finest blotting paper, and obtained it as bright 
as crystal. On heating the perfectly clear whey to the boiling point, how- 
ever, a considerable quantity of a white, flaky substance, resembling in every 
respect albumen, or the white of egg, made its appearance. Collected on a 
filter, washed with distilled water, dried at 212° F., and weighed, this albu- 
minous or curd-like substance amounted on the average to about .9 or nearly 
one per cent, in good milk ; in very rich milk there may be a little more, in 
poor a little less. This albuminous matter is contained in the whey in 
a state of perfect solution, and differs from caseine or curd in not being 
coagulated by rennet. I have called it an albuminous matter, because, 
like albumen, it separates in flakes from the whey at the temperature of 
boiling watei-. Any one may prove the existence of this substance, which, 
however bright the whey may be, it invariably deposits in abundance at the 
boiling point. 

Assuming, then, .9 to be the average proportion of this albuminous mat- 
ter in whey, and deducting this proportion from the total amount of nitro- 
genized substances in the eighteen samples of whey, we obtain the amount 
of curd held in mechanical suspension. Thus we get for 

No. 1 whey, .30 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 2, 4, 8 and 15 whey, none. 

No. 3 and 13 whey, .06 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 5 whey, .525 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 6 and 9 whey, .11 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 7 whey, .156 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 10, 12 and 14 whey .01 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 11 whey, .03 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 

No. 16, 17 and 18 whey, .04 per cent, of curd, held in a state of mechanical suspension. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. • 323 

Thus only in one sample out of eighteen there was about one-half jDer 
cent, of card held in mechanical suspension, and one sample containing three- 
tenths per cent., all the other samples, practically speaking, containing no 
suspended curd. Thus it is not so much the curd as the butter which is lost 
when whey is badly separated from the curd. 

4. When the curd has become sufficiently consolidated and is ready to be 
vatted, it is crumbled down into small fragments. For this operation every 
dairy should be furnished with a curd mill, a simple and inexpensive contri- 
vance, which saves much labor, and produces, generally speaking, a more 
uniform material than the hand. 

5. Cheese is also spoiled occasionally by badly made rennet, that is, ren- 
net which is either too weak or has a disagreeable smell. In the one case 
the curd does not separate completely, and that which separates remains 
tender ; in the other the milk is tainted, and the flavor of the cheese is aifected. 

The rennet used in different parts of England varies exceedingly in 
strength and in flavor. Even in the same locality the usage differs on adja- 
cent farms. Although I have in my possession some dozens of rennet recipes, 
which were given to me by experienced dairymaids, each as the very best, I 
shall not give a single recipe for making rennet, as my object is rather to 
elucidate chemical principles than to prescribe details ; and also because, as 
long as the smell of the rennet is fresh, and a sufficient quantity is used, it 
matters little, in ray opinion, how it is made. 

The ordinary practice in Cheshire is to make rennet fresh CA^ery morn- 
ing by taking a small bit of dried skin, infusing it in water, and using 
this infusion for one day's making. In Gloucestershire and Wiltshire a 
supply is made for the pickled veils, which lasts for two or three months. 
Generally the rennet is made in these counties twice in the season. I have 
had a good deal of discussion with practical men resjDCcting the comparative 
merits of these two methods. The Cheshire farmers almost unanimously 
object that the rennet does not keep well when made in any quantity of 
pickled veils. This, however, is quite a mistake. I have in my possession 
some rennet which is as nicely flavored now as it was some nine months ago, 
when it was made. It has, of course, a peculiar animal odor, but nothing 
approaching a putrid smell. The spices which are used in some localities, 
such as cloves and lemons, tend very much to keep the rennet in a good con- 
dition and give it an agreeable flavor. The objection, then, of the Cheshire 
farmers, that rennet, when a supply is made, does not keep, and spoils the 
flavor of cheese, is certainly untenable. I am much inclined to consider the 
practice of Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, of making a considerable supply 
of rennet, a good one ; for, when once the strength of the rennet has been 
ascertained, it is merely necessary to take the proper quantity, one or two 
cupfuls, to produce the desired effect with certainty ; whereas, when the 
rennet is made day by day, there is not the same certainty of obtaining an 
infusion of imifoi'm strensrth. 



324 , Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Scientific and practical writers on milk have stated that the caseine is 
held in solution by a small quantity of alkali ; that when in warm weather 
milk curdles, lactic acid, which is always found in sour milk, is formed from 
a portion of the sugar of milk ; and this lactic acid, by neutralizing the alkali 
which holds the caseine in solution, causes its separation from the milk. 
Rennet is supposed to act as a ferment, which rapidly converts some of the 
sugar of milk into lactic acid. Whether, therefore, milk coagulates spon- 
taneously after some length of time, or more rapidly on the addition of 
rennet, in either case the separation of the curd is supposed to be due to the 
removal of the free alkali by lactic acid. 

This theory, however, is not quite consistent with facts. The caseine in 
milk cannot be said to be held in solution by free alkali ; for, although it is 
true that milk often has a slightly alkaline reaction, it is likewise a fact that 
sometimes perfectly fresh milk is slightly acid. We might as well say, there- 
fore, that the caseine is held in solution by a little free acid, as by free alkali. 
!N'ewly drawn milk, again, is often perfectly neutral ; but, whether milk be 
neutral, or alkaline, or acid, the caseine exists in it in a state of solution, 
which cannot, therefore, depend on an alkaline reaction. We all know that 
milk, when it turns sour, curdles very readily. It is not the fact that a good 
deal of acid curdles milk which I dispute, but the assumption that the caseine 
in milk is held in solution by free alkali. The action of rennet upon milk, 
then, is not such as has been hitherto represented by all chemists who have 
treated of this subject. Like many other animal matters which act as fer- 
ments, rennet, it is true, rapidly induces the milk to turn sour ; but free 
lactic acid, I find, makes its appearance in milk after the curd has separated, 
and not simultaneously with the precipitation of the curd. Perfectly fresh 
and neutral milk, on the addition of rennet, coagulates, but the whey is per- 
fectly neutral. I have even purposely made milk alkaline, and yet succeeded 
in separating the curd by rennet ; and, what is more, obtained a whey which 
had an alkaline reaction. 

What may be the precise mode in which rennet acts upon milk, I do not 
presume to explain. I believe it to be an action sui generis, which as yet is 
only known by its eflects. We at present are even unacquainted with the 
precise chemical character and the composition of the active principle in 
rennet, and have not even a name for it. Finding the effect of rennet upon 
milk to be diffei'ent from that which I expected, I made a number of experi- 
ments, which may here find a place. 

1st Experiment. — To a pint of new milk, slightly alkaline to test-paper, 
and of 60° Fahr., one-fourth ounce of rennet was added. 

Result — No coagulation after three hours. 

Another quarter ounce of the same rennet was then added. 

Mesidt — The milk coagulated one hour after this addition, but the caseine 
was by no means well separated, and remained tender and too spongy, even 
after twenty-four hours. The whey was slightly alkaline. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 325 

2d Exp.— 1^0 another pint of milk, neutral to test-paper, I added one-half 
ounce of the same rennet. The temperature of the milk was 60", as before. 

Hesult — The curd separated (though imperfectly) after three hours. The 
whey was neutral. 

N. B. — It will be seen that the curd separated more readily from milk 
which was neutral, than from that which was alkaline. 

3£? Exp. — To two pints of skimmed milk (twenty-four hours old), and 
very slightly acid, I added one-half ounce of rennet. Temperature of milk 
59° Fahr. 

Mesult — Curd separated in two hours ; reaction of whey the same as that 
of the milk. 

Thus, if the milk is slightly sour, rennet separates the curd more readily 
than when it is neutral, though the temperature may be low. 

Uh Exp. — To one pint of milk, slightly alkaline, and heated to 82" Fahr., 
one-fourth ounce of rennet was added. 

Mesult — The milk coagulated in twenty minutes ; the whey was slightly 
alkaline. 

Mh Exp. — To one pint of milk heated to 100°, and neutral on reaction, 
one-half ounce o£ rennet was added. 

Mesult — Milk coagulated in one-quarter of an hour ; whey perfectly 
neutral. 

Qth Exp. — Added to one pint of milk one-fourth ounce of rennet. The 
tempex'ature of milk was 110° ; its reaction alkaline. 

Mesult — Milk coagulated in ten minutes ; the whey was alkaline. 

^th Exp. — Milk was raised to 120° Fahr., and one-fourth ounce of rennet 
added to one pint of milk, which was slightly alkaline to test-paper, 

Mesult — Milk coagulated in ten minutes ; the whey had the same reaction 
as the milk. 

^th Exp. — One pint of milk was heated to 130°, and one-fourth ounce of 
rennet added. 

Mesult — Curd separated in twenty minutes ; whey had the same reaction 
as milk. 

The experiment was repeated, and found correct. 

It will thus appear that too high a temperature is not so favorable to the 
coagulation of the milk as a less elevated one. The separation, which at 
120° took place in ten minutes, at 130° occupied twenty minutes. 

9^A Exp. — Heated one pint of milk to 150°, added one-fourth ounce of 
rennet. 

Mesult — Milk did not coagulate after twenty-four hours. 

lO^A Exp. — Heated milk to 140°, added rennet. 

Mesult — No coagulation. 

Wth Exp. — Heated milk to 135°, added rennet. 



326 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



Mesuli—No coagulation took place, even after three hours. I then added 
another quarter ounce ; the milk by this time had cooled down, and the fresh, 
quantity of rennet caused the separation of curd in less than twenty minutes. 

Thus, at 120°, milk coagulates most readily; at 130% it takes a some- 
what longer tmie ; and at 135°, and upwards, it ceases to coagulate. 

12^A Mcp.-Reated one pint of milk to boiling point, add'ed one-fourth 
ounce ot rennet. 

Hesuli—No curd had separated when examined, after twenty-four hours' 
standing. 

13th mp.-Heated another pint of milk to boiling point, and added one- 
fourth ounce of rennet. 

Hesiclt—Milk did not coagulate after twenty-four hours. I then added a 
little more fresh rennet to the cooled milk, and again gently heated it, when 
the curd separated in less than one-quarter of an hour. 

Thus the temperature of boiling water, and even a much lower heat 
destroys the action of the rennet, but does not so permanently chano-e the 
caserne of milk that it cannot be separated. "^ 

The whey in the last experiment, again, was neutral, like the milk. 

Uth Exp.— Ho one pint of fresh milk I added ten grains .of carbonate of 
potash, raised the temperature to 88° Fahr., and added one-fourth ounce 
of rennet. 

Result-Qxxxd separated in half an hour. The milk and the whey were 
strongly alkaline. After twenty-four hours the whey was neutral, and then 
it became acid by degrees. 

l^thExp.-Ho one pint of milk I added twenty grains of carbonate of 
potash, heated to 90° Fahr., and added one-fourth ounce of rennet 

Remlt-T\^ curd separated in half an hour, but not so perfectly as in the 
precedmg experiment, and in a softer condition. The whey was more milky 
m appearance, and strongly alkaline. Examined after twenty-four hours' 
standing, it was found to be neutral ; after a lapse of two days, it was acid. 

Even a considerable quantity of an alkali, therefore, does not prevent the 
coagulation of milk by rennet. 

\Uh Bxjx—To another pint of milk I added an unweighed quantity of 
potash heated to 84°, and then one-fourth ounce of rennet. 

Hesult—No coagulation took place. 

Much more alkali was used in this experiment than in the two preceding • 
an excess of alkali, therefore, prevents the separation of curd by rennet. ' 

11th Exp.— To some milk, sufficient tartaric acid was added to make it 
distinctly acid. 

Result— -No coagulation took place in the cold. On the application of 
heat, the milk coagulated but imperfectly. 

mh Exp.— To another portion of milk I added a good deal of tartaric acid. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 327 

Besult—Ihe, milk coagulated after some time, but imperfectly ; on raising 
the temperature, more curd fell down. 

In order to precipitate the caseine from milk by tartaric acid, it is thus 
necessary to add a very large excess of acid, and at the same time to raise 
the temperature of the milk. 

These experiments prove thus — 
a. — ^That the action of rennet on milk is not the same as that of an acid, inas- 
much as rennet coagulates new milk without turning it sour in the 
least degree. 
h. — ^That rennet can precipitate curd from milk, even when purposely made 

alkaline. 
c. — That the whey of milk, when produced from perfectly sweet or neutral 
milk, is at first perfectly sweet or neutral, but rapidly turns sour. If 
made from milk having an alkaline reaction, the whey at first is alka- 
line ; when from milk slightly acid, the whey likewise is slightly acid. 
d. — That rennet ceases to coagulate milk at about 135°, and upwards. 
e. — That the action of rennet upon milk is more energetic when the milk is 
slightly acid. This, perhaps, is the reason why some persons recom- 
mend putting some sour whey into the milk before or after adding 
the rennet. 
/. — That an excess of alkali prevents the coagulation of milk by rennet. 
g. — That an excess of acid coagulates milk, but not perfectly in the cold. 
h. — That a moderate amount of acid does not coagulate milk in the cold, and 
imperfectly at an elevated temperature. 
6. Cheese, again, is sometimes spoiled when bad annatto is employed as 
a coloring matter. Annatto at the best is a nasty, disagreeable smelling sub- 
stance ; it would be well if it were banished altogether from the dairy. 
But, so long as a good many people will prefer colored to uncolored cheese, 
annatto will be employed for the purpose of imparting a more or less deep 
yellow color. 

The annatto of commerce is derived from the Orelan tree {Bixa orellana). 
The seeds and pulp of this tree appear to contain two coloring matters ; one, 
in a pure state, is orange-red, and is called bixin ; the other is yellow, and 
called orellin. These coloring matters are insoluble in water, but dissolve 
readily in alkalies, and also in fixed oils and fats. Solid annatto, the annatto 
cake of commerce, is a preparation, which contains, besides the pure coloring 
matter, a great deal of potash or soda, carbonate of lime, pipe clay, earthy 
matters and rubbish of various kinds. Soap, train-oil and other disagreeable 
smelling and tasting matters are often used in preparing annatto cake. 
Hence the annatto of commerce is often a most nauseous material, which, 
when put into the cheese tub, is apt to give the cheese a bad taste and an 
unsightly color. Far superior to this annatto, and morq handy in its appli- 
cation, is the liquid anflatto, which is mainly an alkaline solution of the pure 
coloring matter of the JBixa orellana. An excellent solution of that descrip- 



328 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

tion is manufactured by Mr. Nichols of Chipj)enham, which is perfectly 
clear, has a bright yellow color, and is free from any of the obnoxious and 
disagreeable substances which are frequently mixed up with annatto cake, 

7. In the next place Iicould observe that cheese is occasionally spoiled if 
too much salt is used in curing it. Salt is a powerful antiseptic, that is it 
prevents fermentation ; hence we use it for pickling beef and hams. A cer- 
tain amount of salt is necessary, not so much for giving a saline taste, as for 
keeping in check the fermentation to which cheese, like other animal matters, 
is liable. If no salt were used the cheese would putrefy, and acquire a very 
strong taste and smell, at least when made in the ordinary way. When an 
extra quantity of cream is put to the milk, it is not necessary, or even desi- 
rable, to salt the curd much ; we might even do without salt altogether, for 
the large amount of fat (butter) in extra rich cheeses, such as Stilton or 
Cream Cheddar, sufficiently preserves the caseine. 

If salt is employed in excess, the cheese does not ripen properly, or 
acquire that fine flavor, which depends upon the fermentation proceeding in 
a sufficiently active degree. Too much salt, by checking this chemical 
activity, is thus injurious to the proper ripening of cheese. The saline taste 
of old cheese, as already explained, is not due so much to the common salt 
used in its preparation, as to certain amraoniacal salts which are formed 
during the ripening process. It sounds strange, but it is nevertheless the 
case, that over-salted cheeses do not taste nearly so saline when kept for six 
or eight months, as under-salted cheeses kept equally long. If the milk is 
very rich, somewhat less salt should be used than when it is poor. On no 
account, however, should more than two pounds of salt be used per hundred 
weight of cheese ; one and a-half pounds in most cases is quite enough, and 
even one pound will be found a sufficient quantity when rich cheeses are made. 

8. Lastly, an inferior quality of cheese is sometimes produced when it is 
imperfectly salted; that is, when the salt is not properly applied to the 
cheese. I have often seen the salt put upon the curd in rough bits ; more 
often proper care is not taken to mix the curd with the salt, and the cheese 
becomes unequally salted. The consequence is that some particles of the 
cheese ferment too much, others too little, and that the portions which are 
too much salted do not stick well together, and acquire a dry and crumbly 
texture. The salt used in dairies should be of the finest description, and 
should be sifted evenly through a fine sieve on the curd, after the latter has 
been passed through the curd-mill, and thinly spread in shallow leads to cool. 
This plan of spreading the salt saves a good deal of labor, and is greatly to 
be preferred to the system of pickling the cheese in brine after it is made, or 
of rubbing in salt. When salt is applied, either in solution or by rubbing it 
into the cheese after it has been in the presses, the outside is apt to get hard, 
and close up too much. It is, of course, desirable to get a good and firm 
coat, but, at the same time, the pores should not be tf o much closed, so that 
the emanations which proceed from the cheese cannot escape. Thin cheeses 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 329 

may be salted after they have been in the press ; but, in making thick cheeses, 
it is far better to salt the curd before it is put into the vat. 

A rather novel way of salting cheese has lately been made the subject of 
experiments in America. As the following communication to the pages of 
the Country Gentleman and Cultivator, an American agricultural paper, may 
have some interest, I take the liberty of inserting it here : 

IMPORTANT EXPERIMENT IN CHEESE-MAKING. 

" The dairy season is about commencing again, and I desire the privilege 
of a corner in your paper, to give the result of extended experiments in 
cheese-making. In the first place I shall take it for granted that the Avhole 
process up to salting is well understood, for it is of salting that I wish to 
speak in this article. 

"In June, 1859, I finished a few cheeses after the following manner: 
When my curd was scalded (I practice thorough scalding), I threw into the 
vat about four quarts of salt — sometimes only three — for a cheese of fifty to 
sixty pounds, stirring thoroughly. Those which went into the hoop before 
being well cooled ofi", acted badly ; but when I took time and means to cool 
sufficiently, the cheeses were very fine. On the whole, I did not like the 
process and abandoned it. 

" In 1860 I commenced again, changing the programme as follows : After 
scalding I drew off the whey, leaving just enough to float the curd, and 
began to cool off, hurrying the process by pumping in cold water and chang- 
ing often. Then, to a curd of say sixty pounds, a little more or less, I threw 
in sometimes three and sometimes four quarts of salt, and stirred till well 
cooled — then drew off the salted whey, and threw it on the compost heap — 
put the curd to press, and pressed rapidly and thoroughly. And now for 
the result. I lost from my whey tub about three pails of whey and some 
salt. I gained in this, that my dripping tub under the press never had a 
particle of cream rise upon it, and in having a cheese that gave me no trouble 
in curing, and that when sent to market sold for the very highest price, and 
called forth the unqualified approbation of dealers as being perfect in all 
respects — fine flavored, very solid (not porous), and very fat. 

" And now let me talk to the experience of dairymen. In the old-fash- 
ioned way of breaking up and salting a curd, more or less bruising of the 
cui'd to break the lumps, in order to get the salt evenly distributed, is neces- 
sary ; and when put to press the white whey runs off freely, or in other 
words the cream runs off, and of course with it the richness of the cheese, 
and more or less of its weight ; and if the curd is very dry you are liable to 
get your cheese too high salted, if not, the reverse. 

" My experiments clearly prove that a curd salted in whey will retain no 
more salt than it needs, and that as every particle comes in contact with the 
brine through the operation of stirring, no bruising is necessary. Whether 
this is the philosophy of it or not, I am not chemist enough to determine, 



330 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

but I do know that if there is no discharge of white whey, or cream, it is 
retained in the cheese, adding to it both richness and weight as a remunera- 
tion for the extra salt and the wasted whey." 

III. PKACTICAL EEEOES MADE IK KEEPING CHEESE. 

The following are some of the practical mistakes that are occasionally 
made after the cheese has left the presses and is j^laced in the store-rooms. 

1. Cheese is deteriorated in quality when it is placed in damp or in 
badly ventilated rooms. 

When beef or mutton is kept for a day or two in a damp and badly venti- 
lated i^lace, the meat soon acquires a disagreeable, cellar-like taste. The 
same is the case with cheese. Kept in a damp place, it also becomes moldy, 
and generates abundance of mites. 

In some parts of Cheshire it is a common practice to keep cheese in dark 
rooms, carefully shutting out the free access of air. This is an objectionable 
jDractice, which no doubt has its origin in the desire to maintain in the store- 
rooms a somewhat elevated temperature, and to avoid draughts of cold air. 

It is quite true that draughts are injurious to newly-made cheese, and a 
somewhat elevated temperature decidedly favors its ripening and the devel- 
opment of a fine flavor ; but the one may be avoided, and the other can be 
maintained quite well, at the same time that due provision is made for the 
admission and circulation of fresh air. 

During the first stage of ripening, a good deal of water and other emana-- 
tions escape ftom the cheeses, which, if not allowed freely to pass away, make 
the air damp and injure the flavor of the cheeses. "Why cheese should be 
kept in dark rooms is to me a mystery. 

2. Cheese newly made is spoiled hy not turning it frequently enough. 
Thick cheeses especially require to be frequently turned, in order that the 

water which is given oiF from the interior warmer parts of the cheese may 
freely escape, and all sides be exposed at short intervals to the air. If this 
is neglected, that part which is in close contact with the board on which it 
rests becomes smeary and rots, and by degrees the whole cheese is spoiled. 
The boards, we need hardly say, should be wiped with a dry cloth from time 
to time as well as the cheese. 

3, Cheese does not ripen properly, and therefore remains deficient in flavor^ 
if the temperature of the cheese-room is too low. 

The ripening of cheese is essentially a process of fermentation, which may 
be accelerated or depressed by a proper or by too low a temperature. Any 
temperature under 60° is unfavorable, and should therefore be avoided. 

4. Cheese is also spoiled if the temperature of the cheese-room is too high. 

If the temperature of the room rises above 75°, the fermentation becomes 
so active that a cheese is apt to bulge out at the sides, and to lose the uniform 
and close texture which characterises it when good. 

.5. Lastly, cheese is sometimes spoiled if the temperature of the cheese- 
room varied tod much at different times. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 331 

A steady fermentation, which is essential to the proper ripening of the 
cheese, can only be maintained in a room which is not subject to great fluc- 
tuations in temperature. The more uniformly, therefore, the cheese-room is 
heated, the more readily cheese can be brought into the market, and the finer 
the quality will be. For this reason hot- water pipes, which give a very steady, 
gentle, and lasting lieat, are greatly to be preferred to stoves in cheese-rooms ; 
with the latter it is almost impossible to maintain an equable temperature. 
The cheeses nearest to the stove, again, are apt to get too much and those 
farthest ofi" not enough, heat. Constant attention is moreover required; and 
firing in the room is always productive of more or less dust and dirt. These 
inconveniences are entirely avoided by the system of heating by hot-water 
pipes. 

In every dairy hot water is in constant request ; the same boiler which 
heats the water for cleaning the dairy utensils may be conveniently connected 
with iron pipes that pass in and round the cheese-room. Beyond the first cost 
of the iron pipes hardly any extra expense in fuel is thus incurred. An extra 
pipe likewise may be introduced which connects the boiler with Coquet's 
apparatus, and by this means the curd in the tub may be scalded much more 
conveniently and regularly than by pouring hot whey or water over it. I 
have not made a sufficient number of observations to say definitely which is 
the best temperature to be maintained in a cheese-room; but in my judge- 
ment a uniform temperature of 70° to 75° is highly favorable to the ripen- 
ing process. 

The proper regulation of the temperature of the cheese-room, and the 
general plan of heating by hot water, I believe, is one of the greatest of our 
recent improvements. 

These are some of the practical mistakes which I have noticed in our 
dairies. I have endeavored to assign reasons why they must be so regarded, 
and have ventured to point out the appropriate remedies, many of which, 
however, suggest themselves naturally to any intelligent observer. My 
object has been, not so much to write a treatise on cheese-making, as to 
enable those interested in dairy operations to read the various treatises and 
pamphlets on cheese-making with profit, so as to be able to sift the recom- 
mendations which are worth imitating from the heap of empirical rubbish 
under which they are too often buried. No directions, however carefully 
given, can ever be of much service in an art which, like cheese-making, does 
not so much presuppose a great amount of knowledge as practical experience, 
dexterity and cleanly habits. Neither skill in manipulation, nor habits of 
cleanliness, nor experience can be acquired by reading. A good or a sensible 
pamphlet, no doubt, may be read with benefit even by an experienced hand ; 
but the very best of treatises, in the nature of things, cannot teach a person 
who wants a rule or a receipt for everything, how to make a good cheese. A 
good cookery book, no doubt, is a useful literary production, but the best 
cookery-book is incapable of teaching an inexperienced person the art of 



332 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

making light and wholesome pie-crust. It is the same with cheese-making 
as with cookery, as we shall do well to bear in mind. 

Lest these observations on publications on cheese-making should seem to 
disparage too much the merits of the different authors, I may state distinctly 
that a few papers contain valuable and plain directions for making good 
cheese ; but I am bound at the same time to confess that the greater number, 
and more especially most of the prize essays on cheese-making which I have 
read, in my humble opinion, are next to useless to the dairy-farmer, inasmuch 
as they generally conta.in nothing good but what every dairy-farmer has long 
known ever since he began making cheese — and a great deal besides, which, 
though it may appear novel, ingenious or feasible, will at once be condemned 
by any man of sound judgement as visionary and utterly impracticable. 

There are many topics intimately connected with the manufacture of 
cheese on which I have not touched at all, such as the influence of the food on 
the quantity and quanlity of milk, an important subject as yet hardly investi- 
gated at all. Again, the influence of the race on the production of milk 
deserves to be carefully studied, besides various other points on which prac- 
tical men may wish to obtain trustworthy information. My passing them 
over in silence in the present paper will not, I trust, be taken as an indication 
of want of acquaintance with the real, practical wants of the dairy-farmer. 

Hitherto scarcely anything directly bearing on dairy-practice has been 
done by scientific men ; the whole investigation has, therefore, engaged my 
liveliest attention, and brought to light some unexpected chemical facts which 
have been recorded in the preceding pages. Others I hope to lay before 
the readers of the Journal of the Royal Agricultui;al Society when the 
researches still in hand shall be in a sufficiently advanced state to warrant 
their publication. 



I 



VOELCKER'S CHEESE EXPERIMENTS. 



On Pasture Farms, where the milk is not all sold as new milk, nor used 
for fattening calves, the question arises, by what other means it may most 
profitably be converted into marketable produce, and there is still a choice 
between four different modes of proceeding : 

1. The whole milk may be made into cheese. 

2. The cream may be skimmed from part of the milk for making butter, 
and the skimmed milk added to new milk, and then made into cheese. 

3. The whole of the milk may be skimmed and made into skim-milk 
cheese, and the cream into butter. 

4. The whole milk may be skimmed, and made into skim-milk cheese ; the 
cream from the skimmed milk be added to new milk, and made into extra 
rich cheese. 

The question is, which of these four modes gives the best money return. 
Such a purely practical question can be tested satisfactorily in one way only, 
that is by actual trials. I therefore gladly availed myself of the kindness of 
my friend Mr. Thomas Pboctor, who most liberally placed his dairy at my 
command, that I might institute a series of experiments calculated to further 
the solution of this inquiry. I am, likewise, much indebted to Mr. Tanner 
for the practical assistance which he rendered me by superintending the experi- 
ments which were made on a sufficiently large scale to furnish reliable data. 

For each experimental cheese an equal quantity of milk was used, consist- 
ing of one hundred and thirty quarts of evening milk and one hundred and 
thirty quarts of morning milk. The first experimental cheese was made on 
the 11th of August, 1860; the others on the following days. 

In Mr. Pkoctor's dairy at Wall's Court (now in the occupation of Mr. 
Richard Stratton) cheese is made in the Cheddar fashion. In making the 
different experimental cheeses, the same general process was adopted, being 
that usually employed in this dairy. 

Immediately after the morning milking, the evening and morning milks 
were put together into a Cockney's tin tub, having a jacketed bottom for the 
admission of steam or cold water. 

The temperature of the whole was slowly raised to 80®, by admitting 
steam into the jacketed bottom. Ko annatto was used for coloring ; after the 



334 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

addition of the necessary quantity of rennet, the tub was covered with a 
cloth and left for an hour. Rennet, it may be remarked, when properly 
prepared and added in sufficient quantity, should perfectly coagulate milk at 
80" in from three-quarters of an hour to one hour. If the milk fail to be 
coagulated within the hour, the curd produced will be too tender, and not 
ea^ly separated from the whey without loss of butter and injury to the 
quality of the cheese. These results invariably follow when the rennet is not 
sufficiently strong, or too little of it is employed. 

On the other hand, if the curd is completely separated from milk at 80° 
Fahrenheit in twenty to twenty-five minutes, the cheese produced is apt to be 
sour or hard. An excess of rennet always has the effect of separating the 
curd from the milk too rapidly, and in a hard condition. 

As much depends upon the strength of the rennet, it is useful in daily 
practice to prepare a large quantity at a time, and to ascertain by a few trials 
the proper amount for mixing with a given quantity of milk. In experi- 
mental trials, it is absolutely indispensable to know the strength of the 
rennet, and to emj^loy the same rennet in all the trials. At Wall's Court we 
took special care to fulfil these conditions. 

Our plan of proceeding was as follows :— At about half-past eight o'clock, 
the ciu-d was partially broken and allowed to subside for about half an hour, 
after which the temperature was raised very gradually to 108° Fahrenheit, 
by letting steam into the hollow bottom of the cheese-tub ; the curd and 
whey, meanwhile, being gently stirred with a wire breaker, so that the heat 
was uniformly distributed, and the curd minutely broken. The heat was 
kept at 108° for an hour, during which time the stirring was continued ; the 
curd, now broken into pieces of the size of a pea, was then left for half an 
hour to settle. 

The whey was then drawn off by opening a spigot near the bottom of 
the tub. As the curd which is obtained by this process is quite tough, it 
readily separates from the whey, and no pressure Avhatever is at first requisite 
to make the bulk of it run off in a perfectly clear state. 

The curd, collected in one mass, was then rapidly cooled and cut across 
into large slices, turned over once or twice, and left to drain for half an hour. 
As soon as it was tolerably dry and had cooled down considerably, it was 
placed under the press and much of the remaining whey removed by pressure. 
After this the cheese was broken at first coarsely by hand, and then by the 
curd-mill, which divides it into small fragments. A little salt was then added 
and thoroughly mingled with the curd. 

^ The next operation Avas the vatting. The cheese vat, completely filled 
with the broken and salted curd, was covered with a cloth ; the curd was 
reversed in the cloth, put back into the vat, covered up and placed in the 
press. The cheese cloth was removed several times, and the cheeses were 
ready to leave the press on the sixth morning. Mr. Pkoctor's dairy was 
furnished with one of Messrs. Cockey's heating apparatus. This apparatus 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 335 

not only maintains a uniform temperature in the room in which the cheese is 
ripened, but provides a supply of steam, by which the milk and whey may 
be kept at any temperature which may be required ; the necessity of removing 
a large quantity of milk or whey to a boiler to be heated, that it may impart 
the proper temperature to the remainder of the milk or whey in the cheese- 
tub, is thus done away with. As the steam is quickly generated, careless 
dairymaids sometimes spoil the cheese in a few minutes by allowing the tem- 
perature to rise too high. When the curd is overheated, the cheese made 
from it is always hard and deficient in flavor. 

In using Cockey's jacketed cheese-tub, care should also be taken to stir 
up constantly the contents of the tub when steam is admitted into the false 
bottom, for the purpose of raising the temperature to about 100", after the 
curd has been broken up coarsely. If this precaution is neglected, a portion 
of the curd adheres to the heated bottom, and melts. The melted curd pre- 
vents the equal distribution of the heat, and by not amalgamating with the 
remaining curd produces a cheese which is not uniform in texture, ripens 
unequally, and is altogether of an inferior quality. When steam is admitted 
into the jacketed bottom of the tub, the dairymaid should not leave her 
place for a moment, and constantly keep her hands employed in stirring the 
contents of the tub with the shovel wire-breaker. This is rather hard work, 
and therefore much better performed by men than by women, many of whom 
dislike Cockey's cheese-tub. Where it is in use there is, indeed, greater 
risk of the cheese being spoiled than when whey heated in a boiler is added 
to raise the contents of an ordinary tub to the required temperature. But it 
is manifestly unjust to condemn a useful appai'atus on account of the mischief 
which may arise from its misuse. 

Cockey's cheese-tub, I have no hesitation in saying, is an excellent appa- 
ratus which saves a great deal of labor; but excellent though it may be, I 
cannot recommend its use to those who cannot place implicit reliance on the 
care and vigilance of the dairyworaan. These women, as a class, are not 
willing to alter the plan of their operations, and learn the use of a new appa- 
ratus, which, if it saves much labor, still requires some special attention — an 
effort which to some minds seems more troublesome than down-right hard 
manual labor. 

The rennet used in the dairy was made according to the following 
receipt : Slice the half of a lemon ; sprinkle it Avith about six ounces of salt, 
then pour upon it one quart of boiling water ; cover the A^essel to retain the 
steam. When cold put into the liquid one fresh veil ; allow the whole to 
stand for two days, then strain the liquid through a fine cloth, and the ren- 
net is ready for use. This quantity is deemed sufficient to coagulate six 
hundred gallons of milk. 

Prepared in this mode, and carefully strained off from the sediment which 
makes its appearance in the course of some days, rennet keeps sweet and 
efficient for several months. 



336 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

experimental cheese no. 1 (whole-milk cheese.) 

A cheese was made from one hundred and thirty quarts of evening milk 
and one hundred and thirty quarts of morning milk as drawn from the cow. 
A sample of the mixed morning and evening milk, on analysis, gave the 
following results : 

Water, 87 . 30 

Butter, 3 . 75 

*Caseine, 3.31 

Milk-sugar and extractive matters, 4.86 

Mineral matters (asli), 78 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 53 

The whey obtained in this trial was as clear as Rhenish Avine, and con- 
tained no suspended curd. It furnished the following analytical results : 

COMPOSITION OF "WHET OBTAINED IN MAKING CHEESE NO. 1. 

Water, 93 . 25 

Butter, 26 

^Albuminous conipouiuls, .91 

fMilk-sugar, lactic acid, &c., 4.70 

Mineral matters (ash), .88 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen, .166 

\ Lactic acid, .60 

This whey, though perfectly clear, like all other samples contained in 
solution a considerable quantity of a curd-like substance, Avhich is not coagu- 
lated by rennet, but separates in flakes like the white of eggs when the liquid 
is raised to the boiling point. In all probability this curdlike substance is 
albumen. In the analysis of milk this albuminous compound is given together 
with caseine ; and as it constitutes one-fourth to one-third of the caseine men- 
tioned in the analysis of milk, much less curd is obtained as cheese than 
would be the case if the total quantity of curdlike substances was coagulated 
by rennet. I have tried various means of separating this curdlike substance 
together with the rest of the curd, in the hope of obtaining thereby a larger 
quantity of cheese from a given number of gallons of milk, but have not 
succeeded. The only simple way of obtaining this substance is to heat the 
milk or whey nearly to 212*, a temperature which of course, would alto- 
gether spoil the cheese. It has been said that perfectly clear whey possesses 
little nutritive value, but this is a mistake. Not only does such whey contain 
nearly the whole of the sugar of milk and bone-producing materials (ash), but 
also a considerable quantity of albuminous or flesh-producing compounds held 
in solution, besides some butter, the proportion of which, however, is very 
small when the operation has been carefully conducted. 

On no account, therefore, should the whey be allowed to run to waste. 
Mixed with a little barley-meal it constitutes the best food that can be given 
to pigs, for it fattens rapidly, and produces the most delicately-flavored bacon. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 337 

In this trial two hundred and sixty quarts of milk produced two hundred 
and thirty-four quarts of whey. 

The cheese was weighed when fresh from the press, and again from time 
to time, with a view of ascertaining the loss which it sustained in keeping. 
The loss is considerable, as will be seen by the subjoined weighings : 

August 17tli (fresh from the press), 613^ lbs. 

September 14th m% " 

December 14th 57^ " 

February 11th 573| " 

March 11th 57 " 

April 17lh 56 " 

Total loss in eight months, 5% lbs., or nine per cent, round numbers. 

This cheese was considered quite ripe on the 14th of December, and there- 
fore lost one and three-quarter pounds after it was ready for the market. A 
portion analysed on the 17th of April, 18G1, gave the following results : 

Water, 87 . 85 

Butter, 28.91 

*Caseiue, 25.00 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c., 4.91 

fMineral matters (ash), 8.33 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen, 4.00 

f Containing common salt, .53 

EXPERIMENTAL CHEESE KG. 2 (PAETIALLY SKIMMED-MILK CHEESE.) 

The second cheese was made from one hundred and thirty quarts of 
skimmed milk and one hundred and thirty quarts of new milk. The morning 
milk stood thirty-six hours and the evening milk twenty-four hours before 
being skimmed. The cream removed measured ten pints, and produced nine 
pounds of butter. 

A sample of the mixed skim and new milk from which the cheese No. 2 
was made, on analysis gave the following results : 

Water, 87 . 89 

Butter, 3.12 

*Caseine, , 2.94 

Milk sugar and extractive matters, 5.29 

Mineral matters (ash), , 76 

100.00 
^Containing nitrogen, .47 

The whey produced in this experiment measured two hundred and twenty- 
eight gallons, and was found to have the following composition : 

Moisture, 92 . 85 

Butter, 29 

*Albuminous compounds, 93 

Milk sugar, lactic acid, &c., 5.03 

fMineral matters (ash), 90 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 168 

t Containing lactic acid V. .".'.". .".! ... .48 

22 



338 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The cheese No. 2 was made on the 13th of August, 1860, and weighed: 

August 21st (fresh from the press), m% lbs. 

September 14tli,. 493| 

December 14lh, 47 

March 11th, 46 

April 18th, 45M 

July 30th, 44 

Total loss in eight months, Q% lbs., or thirteen and a-quarter per cent. 

Loss when ready for sale, Z% lbs., or seven per cent. 

Analysed on the 30th of July, 1861, having been kept rather longer than ten 

months, it had the following composition : 

Water, 32 . 88 

Butter, 29.25 

*Caseine, 29.87 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c., 4.92 

fMineral matters (ash), 3 . 08 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen, 4.78 

f Containing common salt, .29 

Having been kept much longer than the preceding cheese, it contained five 

per cent, less water and cut rather drier. It will be noticed that this cheese 

contained very little salt. The dairymaid made a mistake not only in this, 

but in all the trials, by using an insufficient quantity of salt ; not more than 

about six ounces having been taken for each cheese. The proper quantity of 

salt is one pound for every fifty pounds of cheese. 

EXPEEIMENTAIi CHEESE KO. 3 (SKIM-MILK CHEESE.) 

In this instance two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk were set aside ; 
the morning milk stood twenty-four hours, and the evening milk thirty-six 
hours before being skimmed. The milk from which the cream was removed 
was then made into skimmed-milk cheese ; tAVO hundred and sixty quarts of 
milk gave twenty pints of cream, which according to the preceding trial 
would have yielded eighteen pounds of butter. 

A sample of the skimmed milk from which the Cheese No. 3 was made, 
on analysis furnished the following results : 

Water 89.00 

Butter 1.93 

*Caseine 3.01 

Milk-sugar and extractive matters 5.28 

Mineral matters (ash) 78 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen, 48 

The whey in this experiment measured two hundred and twenty-two 

quarts, and had the following composition : 

Water 93.15 

Butter 14 

Albuminous compounds 91 

*Milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c 5.06 

Mineral matters 74 



100.00 
* Containing lactic acid 48 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 339 

The Cheese No. 3 was made on the 15th of August, and weighed : 

August 21st (fresh from tiie press) 481,^ lbs. 

September l4tli 47 " ' 

December 14lli 44 '< 

February lltb 433/ " 

March 11th 43y' u 

April 18th .'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'!.'.'.' 43 " 

Total loss in eight months, six and a-lialf pounds, or thirteen per cent. 
Loss when ready for sale, four and a-half pounds, or nine and one-quarter per cent. 
A portion of this cheese was analyzed on the 18th of April, 1861, and 
found to consist in one hundred parts of — 

Water 3943 

-Butter 27.08 

*Caseine 30.37 

Extractive matters and lactic acid ' '23 

fMiueral matters (ash) ', 2.90 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 4.86 

f Containing common salt 23 

EXPERIMENTAL CHEESE NO. 4 (eXTBA-RICH CHEESe). 

The cream from two hundred and sixty quarts of milk was added to two 

hundred and sixty quarts of new milk and made into cheese. A sample of 

the mixed cream and new milk from which No. 4 was made contained in one 

hundred parts : 

Water 85.75 

Butter 611 

*Caseine 2.94 

Milk-sugar and extractive matters 4.47 

Mineral matters (ash) ' .73 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 47 

In this trial two hundred and forty-three quarts of whey were produced. 
The following is an analysis of the whey obtained in making Cheese No. 4 : 

Water 92.95 

Butter 65 

Albuminous compounds 1 30 

■^Milk-sugar and lactic acid 4.55 

Mineral matters (ash) ^65 

100.00 

* Containing lactic acid 48 

In comparison with the whey obtained in making the Cheeses No. 1, 2 
and 3, this whey is richer in butter and also in albuminous matter. It was 
rather milky, and owed its turbid condition to finely-suspended particles of 
curd and butter. 

The Cheese No. 4 was made on the 15th of May, 1860, and weighed : 

August 21st (when it left the press) 70% lbs. 

September 14th 70 " 

December 14th ' * * 67 " 

February 11th .'..'.' 66 " 

March lltli .'....'........'..! 66 " 

April 18th \\\\ 64 " 

July 30th ,. 63 " 



340 Practical Dairy Husbandrt. 

Total loss in eleven months, eight and tliree-fourths pounds, or twelve and a-half per 
cent, in round numbers. 

Loss when ready for sale, three and three-fourths pounds, or five per cent. 

COMPOSITION OF EXTRA-RICH CHEESE NO. 4 ON JULY 30TH, 1861. 

Water • • • • 30.53 

Butter 41.58 

*Caseine 23.38 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 2.45 

•j-Miueral matters (ash) 2.06 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 3.74 

f Containing common salt 09 

It was considered desirable to repeat these trials, and to make four other 

cheese precisely jn the same way in which the preceding four cheeses were 

made respectively. 

CHEESE KO. 5 (whole-milk CHEESE). 

Made from two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk. 

COMPOSITION -OF THIS MILK (AUGUST 21ST, 1860). 

Water 87.00 

Butter 3.99 

*Caseine 3.44 

Milk-sugar, extractive matter, &c 4.81 

Mineral matters (ash) 76 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 55 

This milk, it will be seen, differs but slightly in composition from that 

used on the 11th of August, for making whole-milk cheese. 

COMPOSITION OF WHET FROM CHEESE NO. 5. 

Water 92.80 

Butter 59 

Albuminous compounds 91 

Milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c 5.04 

Mineral matters (ash) 66 

100.00 

This whey, like that made from Cheese No. 4, was not sufficiently clear, 

and contained too much fatty matter in a state of mechanical suspension. 

The Cheese ISTo. 5 was made on 21st of August, and weighed: 

August 27th (fresh from the press) 61^ lbs. 

September 14th 60^ " 

December 14th 583| " 

March 11th 57 " 

Total loss in six and a-half months, four and a-half pounds, or seven and one-fourth 
per cent. Loss when ready for sale, three and one-fourth pounds, or five and one-fourth 
per cent. 

COMPOSITION OF CHEESE NO, 5 ON THE IItH JULY, 1861. 

Water 31.70 

Butter 36.18 

*Caseine 27.19 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 1.95 

f Mineral matters (ash) 2.98 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 4.35 

f Containing common salt 34 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 341 

CHEESE NO. 6 (PARTIALLT-SKIMMED-MILK CHEESe). 

Made from one hundred and thirty quarts of new milk and one hundred 
and thirty quarts of skimmed milk. 

COMPOSITION OF MILK FROM WHICH CHEESE NO. 6 WAS MADE. 

Water 88.50 

Butter 2.43 

*Caseine 3.25 

Milk-sugar, extractive matters, &c 5.03 

Mineral matters (ash) 79 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 52 

Ten pints of cream were taken from one hundred and thirty quarts of 
milk, and produced nine and one-fourth pounds of butter. 

COMPOSITION OP WHEY FROM CHEESE NO 6. 

Water 93.05 

Butter 40 

Albuminous compounds 95 

Milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c 4 96 

Mineral matters (ash) 64 

100.00 
This cheese was made on the 18th of August and weighed : 

August 24th 53 lbs. 

September 14tii 533^ " 

December 14th 49^ " 

February 11th 49 " 

Total loss in six months, four pounds, or seven and a-half per cent. 

Loss when ready for sale, three and one-fourth pounds, or six per cent. 

COMPOSITION OF CHEESE NO. 6, ANALYZED APRIL 22d, 1862. 

Water 38.43 

Butter 23.28 

*Caseine 32.37 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 2.10 

fMineral matters (ash) 3.83 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 5.18 

f Containing salt 65 

CHEESE NO. 7 (SKIMMED-MILK CHEESe). 

Made from two hundred and sixty quarts of milk, from which the cream 
(twenty and one-fourth pints) was taken oif. 

COMPOSITION OF SKIM-MILK USED IN MAKING THE CHEESE NO. 7. 

Water 89.10 

Butter , 2.31 

*Caseine 3.50 

Milk-sugar and extractive matters 4.33 

Mineral matters (ash) 77 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 56 

The whey from this cheese was perfectly clear, and contained hardly any 
butter, as will be seen by the subjoined analysis : 



342 Pb ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 

COMPOSITION OF "VSrHEY FROM CHEESE NO. 7. 

Water 93.10 

Butter 14 

Albuminous compounds 76 

*Milk-sugar and lactic acid 5.31 

Mineral matters (asli) 69 

100.00 

* Containing lactic acid 46 

This cheese was made on the 20th of August, 1860, and weighed : 

August 26th 49^ lbs. 

September 14tli 49 " 

December 14tli 473^ " 

March 6th 463^ " 

Total loss in six months, three and one-fourth pounds, or six and one-half per cent. 

Loss when ready for sale, two and one-half pounds, or five per cent. 

COMPOSITION OF CHEESE NO. 7 (SKIM-MILK CHEESE). 

Water 38.39 

Butter 23.21 

*Caseine 28.37 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 6.80 

Mineral matters (ash) 3.23 

100.00 

* Containing 4.54 

CHEESE NO. 8 (extra RICH CHEESe). 

Made from two hundred and sixty quarts of new milk, to which was 
added the cream (twenty pints) from two hundred and sixty quarts of milk. 

COMPOSITION OF THE MILK FROM WHICH THE CHEESE NO. 8 WAS MADE. 

Water 86.73 

Butter 4.81 

*Caseine 2.69 

Milk-sugar and extractive matters 5.01 

Mineral matters (ash) 76 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 43 

COMPOSITION OF THE WHEY FROM CHEESE NO. 8. 

Water 92,95 

Butter 42 

Albuminous compounds 1.01 

Milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c 4.95 

Mineral matters (ash) 67 

100.00 

This cheese was made on the 20th of August, 1860, and weighed: 

August 26th (fresh from the press) 74^ lbs. 

September 14th 7311 « 

December 14th 71 " 

Loss from the time it left the press until ready for sale, three and three-fourths pounds, 
or five per cent. 

No analysis was made of this cheese. . 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 343 

These experiments then led to the following results : 

Marketable 
Cheese. Butter. 

Quarts. lbs. lbs. 

1. 520 of milk produced (whole-milk) 116 

3. " (one-half skimmed) produced 96^^ 18 

3. " (all skimmed) produced 90}^ 36 

the cream from one- ) ^ , . „,,„„„„ qai/ 

4. 1040 " \ half being added to [ produced \ 'f^rcheese 138 ! '. 



^^au siiiiiimeuj pnjiiuucii 

!the cream from one- ) ^ , . 

half being added to [■ produced t ^.j V 
the other ) ' 



The cheeses were sent to Messrs. Bridges & Co., extensive cheese fac- 
tors at Bristol, who considered No. 1 to be worth seventy shillings per hun- 
dredweight ; No. 2, sixty shillings per hundredweight ; No. 3, fifty shillings 
per hundredweight. 

With respect to the extra-rich Cheese No. 4, Messrs. Bbidges say : " We 
have examined the cheese marked No. 4 ; we think it cuts rather richer than 
that marked No. 1, but it bears no higher value in the market." In my 
paper on the Composition of Cheese, I pointed out the fact that the market 
value of cheese does not entirely depend upon the amount of butter which it 
contains, I am glad to find this opinion confirmed by the testimony of a 
cheese factor whose practical knowledge is extensive. 

Mr. Tanner informs me that he has had a long conversation with Mr. 
Bridges on the subject of cheese-making, and in his letter to me quotes 
several observations made by him on this occasion, which perfectly accord 
with remarks made by me in the paper referred to. 

Thus Mr. Bridges, speaking within certain limits, considers the richness 
of cheese to depend as much upon the mode of making as upon the quantity 
of cream in the milk. Too much heat, he says, destroys the cream ; meaning, 
no doubt, that too much heat melts some of the butter, which then passes 
into the whey. By carelessly manipulating the tender curd, he justly 
observes, some of the cream may be washed out and passed into the whey. 
This gentleman is also of opinion that the best Cheddar cheese can be made 
from good new milk, and therefore considers the addition of cream to milk 
of questionable service, and certainly an extravagant practice. 

The addition of cream to new milk, no doubt, if not absolutely necessary, 
certainly improves the quality of Stilton cheese, but the market value of 
Cheddar is not raised materially by such an addition. First-rate cheese- 
makers, Mr. Bridges observes, often take some cream from the milk, and 
still make a superior quality of cheese (worth more in the market) than less 
experienced and careless makers produce from unskimmed milk. He looks 
upon the temperature and careful breaking of the curd as the points upon 
which the quality of the cheese (Cheddar) mainly depends — apart, of course, 
from the influence of the natural richness or poverty of the milk. 

Having treated of all these points in detail in my paper on the " Compo- 
sition of Cheese," I need not refer to them in particular. These observations 
made by Mr. Bridges must be satisfactory to dairymen, as aflTording a prac- 



344 Practical Dairy Husbandry, 

tical confirmation of the correctness of opinions which I have already pub- 
lished, as resulting from my own observations and scientific experiments. 

The cheeses produced in these trials were not so good as they might have 
been, nor like those of experienced makers, such as Mr. Harding of Marks- 
bury, Mr. McAdam of Gorsly Hill, or Mr. Chandos Pole of Derby. 
Anxious not in any way to thwart or disconcert the dairymaid, I thouo-ht it 
wise to let her have entirely her own way. She certainly made two great 
mistakes. To one I have already alluded ; six ounces of salt is not enough 
for from fifty to sixty pounds of cheese ; three-quarters to one pound would 
have been a better proportion. The second mistake which she made was to 
raise the temperature to 108° F. On no account should the heat of the 
cheese-tub be allowed to rise above 100° F. The higher the temperature is 
raised the more readily the whey passes from the curd, and the less mechan- 
ical work is required. The dairy woman may, therefore, be naturally tempted 
to save herself trouble to the injury of the cheese. 

Although I am a great advocate for the Cheddar system of cheese-making, 
I am bound to say that the comparatively lower temperature which the best 
Cheshire makers adopt is the main reason of the exceedingly fine aroma 
which so favorably characterises their produce. 

The finest-flavored cheese which I have ever tasted was made at Ridley 
Hall, near Crewe, Cheshire. I have no hesitation in saying that milk of the 
same quality as that which there came under the careful management of Mrs. 
Willis, in the hands of the most expert Cheddar maker would not produce 
a cheese of an equally delicious flavor. 

The care, skill, and enormous amount of work and time which the making 
of the best Cheshire entails, especially when contrasted with the Cheddar 
system, no doubt are the main causes why so little really first-rate Cheddar 
cheese is now manufactured. I would strongly recommend those who prefer 
in the main to follow the Cheshire plan, but find that their cheese is apt to 
heave and be inferior in quality, to set the milk at a somewhat higher tem- 
perature than is their custom; 80° is a very good temperature at the time 
of applying the rennet. When the curd has been carefully broken up and 
allowed to settle for about half an hour, the temperature of the cheese-tub 
may then be raised with advantage to 90° F. 

Returning to the Wall's Court cheese trials, it appears, according to pre- 
ceding data, that one thousand gallons of milk, used according to the four 
difierent modes adopted, gave market produce as follows : 

No. 1. 1,000 gallons of new milk gave 8 cwt. of whole-milk cheese. 
ISO 3. 1,000 gallons of milk, partially skimmed, produced 6^ cwts. 16 lbs. of cheese, 
and 13^ cwt. of l>utter. 1 j . i /2 

No 3. 1,000 gallons of milk, skimmed, produced 6 cwts. 34 lbs. of skim-milk cheese, 
and 33^ cwts. of butter. 

No 4. 1,000 gallons of milk produced 3 cwts. 13 lbs. of skim-milk cheese, and 4M 
cwts. of extra rich cheese. 

Let us now compare the economic results obtained, taking as the basis of 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, . 345 

our calculation the price actually obtained by the sale of these eight large 
Cheddar cheeses, and assuming that butter is sold at Is. per pound. 

£ s. d. £ s. d. 

No. 1. Produced 8 cwts. of whole milk cheese, worth 70s. per cwl 28 

No. 3. Cheese, 6 cwts. 2 qrs. 16 Ihs, at 60s. per cwt 19 18 4 

26 18 4 



Butter, 11^ cwt., at Is. per lb 7 



No. 3. Cheese, 6 cwts. 24 lbs., at 50s. per cwt 15 10 8 

Butter, 3K cwts ^^ ^ ^ 29 ^q 3 

No. 4. Made into skim-milk cheese and extra rich cheese, 1,000 gal- 
lons of milk prod uced : 

Skim-milk cheese, 3 cwts, 12 lbs., at 50s 7 15 4 

Kich cheese, 4 cwts. 3 qrs., at 703 16 13 6 

24 7 10 

Thus in these experiments it will appear that No. 2 gave the best, and 
No. 4 decidedly the least profitable result. Where a ready sale for butter 
can be found, I am inclined to think it is more profitable to make skim-milk 
cheese and butter than to look only to the production of a cheese of a better 
quality. The Cheddar plan, however, is not so well adapted for the making 
of skim-milk cheese as the Gloucester system, neither is it desirable to make 
thick skim-cheeses. A thick skim-milk cheese, when made at the elevated 
temperature at which Cheddar is usually produced, never ripens properly, and 
like all skim-milk cheese deteriorates when kept more than two months ; 
whereas a rich Cheddar is gradually improved by keeping for many months. 

CHEESE EXPERIMENTS MADE AT MK. HAERISOn'S DAIRY, FKOCESTER COURT, 

STONEHOUSE. 

Mr. J. F. Harrison makes excellent uncolored single Gloucester, and 
follows the ordinary practice in his neighborhood of making cheese twice a day. 

The pasture in this district is good, but full of buttercups {Ranunculus). 
The cows kept on this pasture yield milk rich in butter. In making single 
Gloucester, a portion of the milk from each milking is generally set aside, 
partially skimmed, and then added to new milk. The rennet is applied at a 
temperature varying, according to the time of the year, from 75° to 80°. 
After an hour the curd is carefully cut across with a large-bladed knife, then 
removed by a skimming dish from the sides and bottom of the tub. The 
curd is allowed to subside for about a quarter of an hour, after which the 
clear whey is dipped out with a wooden bowl, care being taken not to press 
or injure the tender curd. When most of the whey has been removed, the 
curd is again carefully stirred with a wooden skimming dish, and afterwards 
with a wire breaker, at first very cautiously and gradually more briskly. 
After the curd has been thoroughly broken, the whole is left to settle for 
twenty or twenty-five minutes ; the clear whey is next drawn ofi", and the curd 
collected into one mass. This is cut into thin slices, which are heaped up and 
again collected into one mass, and this process of slicing and heapmg is 
repeated several times, as it materially facilitates the separation of the whey 
and is much preferable to the use of pressure. Many dairymaids, anxious to 
be rid of this work, put the curd far too soon into the presses ; in consequence 



346 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

of which the pores of the outside layers of the cheese are completely closed 
up, and the whey prevented from escaping. No amount of ordinax-y pressure 
removes the whey so perfectly as repeated slicing and careful breakino- up. 

When sufficiently firm and dry, the curd is placed upon cloth in the vat, 
and gently pressed under an ordinary cheese-press. When no more whey 
flows out, it is removed from the press, crumbled coarsely by hand, and then 
more minutely by the curd-mill. Finally the curd is vatted, and placed at 
first under a slight pressure, which is gradually increased. The last thing 
done on the day on Avhich the cheeses are made, is often to rub in some salt. 
Subsequently the cheeses are salted in the same way three times, and each 
time the salt is rubbed in, a clean and dry cloth is placed around the cheeses. 
In about a week's time the cheeses are ready to be removed to the cheese-room. 

The preceding is a short description of the usual plan of making thin 
Gloucester cheese. 

Mr. Harrison does not color his cheese, and keeps it for about a fortnight 
in a warm room, and then removes it to a cool, airy shed for three weeks 
longer before he sends it to market. In both rooms the cheeses are kept on 
wooden shelves and frequently turned. In winter the first room is heated 
by a stove. 

Mr. Harrison, who takes great interest in cheese-making, some years 
ago applied the ordinary centrifugal drying-machine to the purpose of 
separating whey. A small turbine or water-wheel drives the revolving 
vessel in which the curd is placed in a cloth. As the vessel attains its 
velocity, the whey is driven outwards through the perforated surface which 
encloses it, and escapes. The curd in this case is either not broken at all, 
unless by accident, or but imperfectly. 

Having operated with the drying machine, I am of opinion that instead 
of beating curd and whey together into the revolving vessel, it would be 
better and more expeditious to break the curd coarsely, to let it subside for 
twenty minutes, to dip out as much of the clear whey as possible without dis- 
turbing the curd, and then to place it, tied in a cloth, in the revolving vessel. 

Mr. Harrison obligingly placed his dairy at my disposal to try certain 
experiments, and for his kindness and personal assistance my sincere thanks 
are due to this gentleman. 

It has been stated by many, that in cheeseraaking a considerable loss, 
both in curd and butter, is often incurred by adopting a faulty method, or 
by careless manipulation. With a view of preventing these alleged losses, 
Mr. Harrison was the first to adapt the centrifugal drying-machine to dairy 
operations. But as his excellent dairymaid prefers to make cheese by hand, 
the centrifugal machine is not often set in motion at Frocester Court. 

I was anxious to ascertain by comparative trials whether the alleged loss 
in cheesemaking was unavoidable, or whether it could be avoided or dimin- 
ished by the employment of this centrifugal whey-separating machine. The 
trials were made at Frocester Court on the 7th of August, 1860. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 347 

No. 1. — In the first experiments, eighty gallons of milk were made 
according to the usual plan into four cheeses, which may be called hand- 
made cheeses. 

No. 2. — In the second trial, eighty gallons of milk were made into four 
cheeses as before, with this exception — that the whey was separated by the 
centrifugal machine. 

The milk used in both trials had the following composition : 

Water, 87.40 

Butter, 3.43 

*Caseine, 3 . 13 

Milk sugar, extractive matters, &c., 5.13 

Miueral matters (ash), , 93 

100.00 
* Containing nitrogen 50 

The whey obtained in each experiment was neaiiy clear ; that produced 
by the machine being the clearer of the two. On analysis the following 
results were obtained : 

COMPOSITION OF TWO SAMPLES OF WHEY MADE AT PROCESTER COURT, AUG. 7tH, 1860. 

MACHINE-MADE. HAND-MADE. 

Water, 93.75 93 60 

Butter, .39 .55 

*Albuminous Compounds, 87 .96 

Ash 86 .81 

Sugar and extractive matters, 5.13 5.08 

100.00 100.00 

* Containing nitrogen .14 .15 

Free lactic acid, .41 .36 

We see then that both in respect of the butter and the albuminous com- 
pounds left in the whey, the machine has an advantage, though but a slight 
one ; but there is no essential difference between ordinary whey and that pro- 
duced by the centrifugal machine. Other samples of whey from cheese made 
by hand have given me quite as little butter as that found in the whey pro- 
duced by the machine ; and every sample of whey which I have yet examined 
contained from 8-lOths to 1 per cent, of a curd-like albuminous matter which 
is not coagulated by rennet, and that can only be separated by boiling. 

The four cheeses of each trial were carefully marked and weighed at inter- 
vals. They were made, it will be remembered, on the 7th of August. 

No. I. — The cheeses made by hand weighed : 

August 18th, 811^ lbs. 

September 3d, 783^ " 

September 33d, 75 " 

Loss in four weeks, ej^ lbs., or 8 per cent. 

II. — The four cheeses made by the machine weighed : 

August 18th, 741^ lbs. 

September 3d, 70)1 " 

September 33d, 67 " 

Loss in four weeks, 1)4. ^^s., or 10 per cent. 



348 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The cheese was sold at Id. a pound when only five weeks old, and no per- 
ceptible difierence in the quality of the cheese made by hand and that made 
by the machine could be noticed. All were equally good and fine-flavored 
cheeses. 

Eighty gallons of milk when made by hand into cheese thus produced 
seventy-five pounds, and when made by the machine only sixty-seven pounds 
of salable cheese. Since the whey from the machine-made cheese Avas 
rather the poorer, fully as great a weight of cheese might have been expected 
when the machine was used as when the ordinary plan of manipulation was 
adopted. To account for this difference of eight pounds, it may be supposed 
that the machine-made cheese was drier than the other; but the preced- 
ing weighings show that whereas the No. I cheeses lost in four weeks only 
eight per cent, in weight, the No. II cheeses made by machine lost ten per 
cent., indicating thereby that the latter were more moist than the former. 
Direct determinations, indeed, showed that the machine-made cheese contained 
more water than that made in the ordinary way. In the former I found 37.20 
per cent, and in the latter 36.77 per cent, of water ; but this difference is not 
sufficient to account for the results. 

The case was puzzling ; equal quantities of milk had in each case been 
carefully measured out; rather less matter had been left in the whey which 
came from the machine ; the cheese differed but little in respect of moisture ; 
but for an accidental observation I should have been completely at a loss to 
explain the anomaly. I found out by chance that the dairymaid was deter- 
mined not to be beaten by the machine, and to prove her skill by making a 
larger quantity by hand than by the machine. The two trials were made in 
two adjoining rooms, and watching the making of the two sets of cheese from 
beginning to end, I found the dairymaid in the act of incorporating some 
cheese-parings from the preceding day's make with the hand-made cheese. 
Whether these parings were specially reserved for the coming trial or not I 
cannot say ; but I certainly saw her take them from a tolerably large supply 
which she kept under the cheese-tub. 

The examination of the two samples of whey had, however, in my opinion, 
afforded sufficient evidence of the fact that no matter how cheese is made, a 
considerable proportion of the nitrogenized compounds of the milk is left in the 
whey ; and that this loss is unavoidable, and not necessarily greater in the 
ordinary plans of operation than by the use of a machine. 

All the experimental cheeses were received by me on the 28th of Sep- 
tember, 1860. 

One of them which was made by the machine got injured in the trans- 
mission from the dairy to Cirencester. It weighed sixteen and a-half pounds. 
A portion of the cheese was analyzed on the 28 th of September, and yielded 
the following results : 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



349 



Water 37.30 

Batter, 37.30 

*Caseine, 34 . 50 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c., ' -44 

f Mineral matters (asli), 3.56 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen, 3.92 

\ Containing common salt, 85 

The cheeses were kept for a considerable length of time, principally for 

the purpose of ascertaining the loss in weight which they sustained in keeping. 

On the 28th of September the eight»cheeses weighed: 



No. 
1 
2 
3 
4 



MACHINE-MADE. 

lbs 

.... 161^ 

.... 1734 
.... 16K 
.... 161^ 



No. 
1 . 
3 . 
3 . 

4. 



HAND-MADE. 

lbs. 

... 18^ 

... 17 
... 18% 
... 30 



Total 66K 

On the 9th of November they weighed : 



Total 741^ 



No. 

1 

3 

3 

4 Consumed 



MACHINE-MADE. 

lbs. 

.... 15% 

.... 16% 
.... 15% 



LOSS SINCE 
28th SEPT. 

lbs. 



No. 

1. 

3. 
3. 

4. 



HAND-MADE. 

lbs. 
.... 18M 
.... 16M 
.... 18M 
.... 19% 



LOSS SINCE 
28th SEPT. 

lbs. 
1^ 



Weights on the 19tli of January, 1861 



No. 
1. 



MACmNE-MADE. 

lbs. 

14 

15 

14M 



LOSS SINCE 
28th SEPT. 

lbs. 

3M 
3 



4 Consumed 

Weights on the 12th of February, 1861 



HAND-MADE. 

No. lbs. 

1 16% ^^ 

3 Consumed on the 9tli JNov. 

3 161^ 

4 1834 



LOSS SINCE 
28th SEPT. 

lbs. 
2 

334 

3 



No. 

1., 

2., 
3. 



MACHINE-MADE. 

lbs. 

13% 

14% 

14 



LOSS SINCE 
28th SEPT. 

lbs. 
3% 
2^ 



No. 

1 Consumed. 

2 Consumed. 

3 

4 



HAND-MADE. 

lbs. 



LOSS SINCE 

28th SEPT. 
lbs. 



16 

17% 



3% 
3K 



4 Consumed. 

Accordingly forty-two and a-half pounds of machine-made cheese lost from 
the time they were ready for sale until the 12th of February— that is, a period 
of not quite five months — seven and three-quarters pounds, or eighteen per 
cent. ; while thirty-three and three-quarter pounds of the hand-made cheese 
lost in the same period five and a-quarter pounds, or fifteen and a-half per 
cent. ; thus showing plainly that the hand-made cheeses were rather drier than 
those made by the machine. These weighings likewise show the economy of 
selling cheese as soon as possible after it is ready for the market. 

One of the cheeses made by hand was analyzed on the 21st of January, 
1861, and found to contain in one hundred parts : 



350 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Water, 01 oe 

Butter, .•:;:.■.•:;.•.■.■:.•.■.■.•::;::;: sJ.I? 

*Caseine, gg „„ 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c., ." ] 001^ 

fMineral matters (ash), .!!!.*.!!'...!!'.*.!,".*."" 4 45 

*r. . . . . lao.oo 

* Uontaming nitrogen, ^ «^ 

f Contaiuing common salt, ,.,, ........',. ,,]\\ " 135 

During the time of keeping it became, of course, drier and correspondingly 
richer in butter. 

Two skim-cheeses made on the 8tR of August, 1860, weighed on the 18th 
of August, thirty-one and a-half pounds ; on the 3d September, thirty pounds ; 
and on the 22d of September, twenty-eight pounds, and were then considered 
ready for sale. Kept still longer they lost considerably in weight, as will be 
seen by the following weighings : 

WEIGHT OF TWO SKIM CHEESES. 
SEPTEMBER 28th. NOVEMBER 9th. JANUARX 19th. 1861. FEBEUART 12th, 1861. 






No. lbs. lbs. 



lbs. lbs. 



1 13 12K n% 11 

2 15 14K 13g 12% 
Total 28 27 24^ 23^ 

Total loss in weight in not quite five months, 4}^ lbs., or 15 per cent. 

A portion of one of the skim-cheeses was analyzed on the 19th of Feb- 
ruary, 1861, with the following results : 

^^1^'' 27.68 

*^^^"F 30.80 

*Caseme gg ^o 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 1 46 

fMineral matters (ash).. 4 '94 



100.00 

* Containing nitrogen g g2 

f Containing common salt .".'.".".'.".'.".*.*.'."' 1 27 

This^ cheese was hardly inferior to a good whole-milk cheese, and might 
readily have been sold as such. 

It is a well-ascertained fact that towards the fall of the year cows produce 
much less but richer milk than in spring and summer. This is strikingly 
illustrated by the various quantities of cheese which are obtained at different 
times of the year, from a given quantity of milk, as will be seen by the follow- 
ing results with which Mr. Haeeison kindly supplied me : 

<,^-, '^^S'^'^ beginninar of August, 160 gallons of milk produced 8 cheeses, weighing on the 
22d of September 142 lbs. 

On the 19tb of October, 110 gallons of milk produced 7 cheeses, weighing on the 31st 
of December, 108i^ lbs. 

On the 29th of November, 60 gallons of milk produced 5 cheeses, weicliinff 70 lbs. on 
the 13th of February. 

On the 29th of November the cows were still out to grass, and had no extra 
food but hay. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 351 

In conclusion I may mention an experiment which Mr. Harding of Marks- 
bury made at my request, with a view of converting into cheese, if possible, 
the curd-like substance which is not coagulated by rennet, together with any 
suspended particles of butter usually occurring in whey. 

To this end seventy gallons of whey were heated to the boiling point, and 
kept for some time at that temperature. The curd-like substance which sepa- 
rated was collected on a cloth, and after the addition of a little salt, placed in 
the cheese-press. After remaining in it for three days eighteen ounces of 
whey-cheese were obtained. This cheese had a peculiar granular texture, and 
even after long keeping did not ripen proj)erly like other cheese. The high 
temperature at which it was produced evidently prevents the necessary fer- 
mentation which curd must undergo before it becomes mellow, and salable 
as human food. 

The small quantity of eighteen ounces from seventy gallons, moreover, 
appears hardly sufficient to repay for the trouble. On the whole it would 
appear to be quite as profitable to set the whey for butter, and to give the 
skimmed whey to the pigs. 

As a matter of curiosity I append an analysis of the whey-cheese, which 
although very rich in fatty matters, had a bad texture and quite an inferior 
flavor. 

COMPOSITION OF WHET-CHEESB. 

Moisture 30.23 

Butter 44.37 

*Caseine 21.50 

Extractive matters, lactic acid, &c 1.52 

fMineral matters (ash) 2.48 

100.00 

* Containing nitrogen 3.44 

f Containing common salt 1.83 



I 



PRELIMINARY TO CHEESE-MAKWa 



Before entering upon the subject of cheese manufacture in detail, I have 
some few remarks to make on topics omitted in previous pages. 

CLEANSING DAIRY UTENSILS. 

Before commencing the operation of milking, it is important that the 
pails and cans be clean and sweet. This is an old story, which every dairy- 
man has probably heard over and over again, and understands perfectly in 
the abstract. The cleansing of pails and cans usually belongs to the female 
portion of the household, and some would take it as an offense to be told 
that their dairy utensils are not kept clean and in order ; but it is a fact that 
many dairywomen, though patterns in neatness generally, do not understand 
when a milk pail is in proper order to be used. It is a common practice to 
take wooden pails after milking, clean the outside and rinse them in cold 
water. The water is turned into the first pail, and a cloth may perhaps be 
used to brush around the water. Then the contents of the pail are emptied . 
into the second pail, and thus the whole lot is treated. Then the pails are a 
second time rinsed and turned down to drain and dry, and are pronounced 
clean and sweet. This is the evening management. In the morning the 
same operation is performed with hot water, that is, water not so hot but 
that the hand may be borne in it, without seriously discommoding the 
operator. To the common observer pails treated in this way may appear 
perfectly sweet and clean ; but to those who understand the nature of milk 
ferments, these utensils are positively filthy. A close observation about the 
corners at the bottom, about the ears of the pail, and often upon the sides, 
will reveal a gum-like substance, which consists of minute particles of milk, 
adhering to the surface and drying down, having the appearance of discolored 
white paint. After awhile this gummy substance becomes so thick that it 
arrests the attention of the dairymaid, and she forthwith scours it off with 
salt or otherwise, and the pails present a whiter aspect. But of the damage 
that has been done from day to day to the milk from these germs of ferment, 
especially if the weather has been warm, she has no idea, and often will not 
be convinced. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



353 



A great deal of trouble with milk at factories and private dairies arises 
from improperly cleaned pails ; for it is surprising how small a quantity of 
this old decomposed milk will set a large quantity of good milk in a ferment. 




4 



FlGTTBI! 1. 

My OAvn experiments upon this point have been numerous, and with those 
who have carefully studied the nature of milk the question has never for a 
moment been disputed. It was on account of the carelessness and negligence 
in cleansing wooden milk pails, that I long since denovmced them as a 
mcisance, and I am glad to say that Dairy Associations in New York, in 
Ohio, in Canada and the Northwest have sustained this opinion, and resolu- 
tions recommending their banishment from the dairy, and the use of tin in 
their place. We introduce cuts of approved tin milk pails — the Millae 
pail, that of the Iron Clad Co., and the 
Ralph pail. 

Millak's tin milk pails (Fig. 1) are 
made from four cross tin, imported on 
purpose for them, have but one seam in 
the body of the pail and are soldered very 
smoothly. A tinned malleable iron rim or 
band is soldered firmly to the bottom in- 
closing it, and is so constructed as to thor- 
oughly protect and support it and to raise 
it sufficiently to prevent it from resting on 
the floor and from picking up the dirt ; it 
is also convenient for tipping the pail. 
The Avire in the upper edge of the pail is inclosed by the tin and then 
soldered so that it cannot rust. The bail is made from the best tinned wire. 
23 




riGURE 2. 



354 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



^ 



The Iron Clad Co. pail is also of heavy tin, substantially made, the 
bottom being convex to give it strength. It is shown in Fig. 2. 

The Ralph pail is of tin, and has a concave bottom. It is made in two 
styles, the one with a rim on the bottom, and the other as a tin lining to a 
wooden pail. Figs. 3 and 4 represent the last named style. 





FiGUBE 3. 



Figure 4. 



In cleansing dairy utensils, it should be understood that neither cold or 
warm water is sufficient to destroy the germs of ferment contained in these 
particles of decomposed milk. To be efficient, the water must be at the 
boiling point, or 212°. Dr. Voelcker well remarks, in speaking of this 
point, that " it is important to ascertain that the water is perfectly boiling ; 
and yet it is strange that few women, comparatively speaking, though they 
have spent many years in the kitchen, know to a certainty when the kettle 
is really boiling." " This remai'k," he adds, " applies to some educated as 
well as uneducated females. They often mistake the singing voice of the tea 
kettle, accompanied by a certain amount of vapor, for a sign that water is in 
a state of ebullition." Now go through the country, and how many dairies 
will be found where attention is given to this matter of boiling water in 
cleansing cans and pails ? Probably not one in one hundred. It is tpue 
when tin is used the difficulty of cleaning is not so great as with wood, since 
the metal will not absorb liquids ; and yet we hear of much complaint from 
imperfectly cleansed milk pails and cans. At a meeting of the American 
Dairy Association, Mr. Moon of Herkimer, in discussing the question of 
floating curds^ gave an instance where this trouble was had in one vat of 
milk at the factory every day for a week. The cause was finally traced to a 
certain dairy, and an examination of the milk utensils revealed the fact, that 
under the small piece of tin soldered around the vent hole in the can cover, 
some milk had leaked through the imperfect solder. Here had lodged small 
particles of milk which, decomposing or becoming putrid, was the cause of 
the trouble. The covers were repaired and properly cleaned, and afterwards 
there were no floating curds. The plan of 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 365 

cleansing and steaming the cans 

with a jet of hot steam, as practiced by the Elgin Condensing Works, is 
worthy of imitation, and should be adopted by every factory. And I believe 
that unless farmers take this matter more at heart, and resolve to be more 
careful with dairy utensils and in the delivery of milk at the factories, the 
same losses and troubles that have been going on for years past will continue. 
The question is of vital importance, and cannot be too frequently urged upon 
the dairy public. 

MILKING. 

Farmers generally have the impression that when milch cows have win- 
tered well and are fairly out to grass there need be but little care or attention 
given to the animals, and that then in their herds they have a fountain that 
is to supply good, pure milk simj)ly by drawing it, not much matter how or 
when. It is true people understand that when cows are milked with great 
irregularity, or are subjected to any extraordinary brutal treatment — such as 
sundry kicks in the udder with a heavy boot, they will yield unprofitable 
results, since the consequence of such management forces itself almost imme- 
diately upon the attention. But it is not those things that come so plainly 
under the eye of the observer, concerning which I propose to speak. If an 
angry man kicks his cow in the udder, some of the blood-vessels of the part 
will probably be ruptured, and the bloody milk which flows from the teats 
will speak more forcibly than any words of mine ; but if he kicks her in the 
ribs, or mauls her with a milking-stool upon the hips and back, the conse- 
quences may not be so immediately apparent, yet that damage is done and 
that loss will follow, is equally certain. I am speaking of no exceptional 
cases, but of those that are of common occurrence wherever any considerable 
herd is kept, and when the eye of the master is not sharp to detect and 
punish these offenses. The pressing want in the dairy districts to-day is for 
good, kind, humane laborers, who can be trusted to do the milking in a proper 
manner. Many of these people do not understand that any pai'ticular loss is 
to follow from a moderately brutal and cruel treatment of cattle. 

I have always advised dairymen to make a special contract with laborers 
who are to be employed about the dairy. Let it be understood that the 
moment a cow is maltreated, that moment a settlement is to be made and the 
party offending to be discharged with a reasonable deduction from his wages. 
This fairly understood at the time of hiring, together with proper oversight 
of the animals, and those about the dairy will go far to mitigate a great and 
growing evil. It is a lamentable fact that there are a large number of ailing 
milch cows in the dairy districts — cows that are not in vigorous health, that 
fall off in milk, that have sick turns, now and then, which, if the history of 
their treatment was known, could all be traced to the causes I have enumer- 
ated. A rap upon the spine with the stool has ruined many a valuable beast ; 
a stroke upon the udder has often produced unaccountable cases of garget. 



356 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

I wish it could be generally and thoroughly understood, that nothing pays 
better in the dairy than kindness and gentleness to stock. Milch cows should 
be kept as quiet and comfortable as possible, and no person should be 
employed in milking that the animals fear. Any undue nervous excitement 
not only lessens the quantity but depreciates the quality of the milk. Some- 
times cows take a dislike to their milker, and in such cases a change should 
be made, otherwise there is a liability of the cow falling off in her milk. I have 
seen several cases of this kind, and although such freaks are quite unaccount- 
able, it will always be found better to change the milker if possible, rather 
than to attempt to conquer this j^eculiarity. I do not approve the practice, 
common with some dairymen, of the milkers milking the cows indiscrimi- 
nately. The hands should each select a certain number of cows and continue 
to milk them from day to day throughout the season. 

The hours of milking should be regular, and each cow should be milked 
in regular order. The milk should be drawn rapidly and to the last drop, 
and all loud talking, singing, and wrangling avoided. These are little things 
in themselves, and may seem to many to be " over nice ;" but repeated and 
Avell-conducted experiments have convinced me that they are important points 
to be attended to, and must be observed to obtain the best results. I always 
insist that the milkers 

STUDY THE DISPOSITION OF THE COWS 

under their charge, that they become familiar or perfectly acquainted with 
each animal, patting them, or in other ways making them understand that you 
are friendly and fond of them. When once their confidence has been obtained 
in this way they will exhibit affection in return, and will yield in the increased 
quantity of milk more than enough to pay for the time and trouble given to 
the purpose indicated. Some cows are extremely nervous and excitable ; such 
require caution and attention in management, otherwise they soon become 
worthless for the dairy. 

IN DRIVING CATTLE PROM THE PASTURE 

to the stable they should never be hurried or made to go faster than a walk. 
Good cows have well-filled udders, which make it painful to move over the 
ground faster than a walk. Besides, in warm weather, by hurrying the animal 
there is always danger of over-heating her blood and milk, and thus not only 
injuring it, but all the other milk with which it comes in contact. Dogs 
should never be allowed in a dairy. They are the source of infinite mischief. 
In all my observations I have never yet met with a strictly first-class dairy 
of cheese, where the cows were dogged from the pasture to the stable. 

What I desire to impress upon the mind is, that these truths should be 
understood not only in the abstract, but that they be carried into practice. 
Neither good butter nor good cheese can be made from diseased milk ; nor 
can good milk be had from diseased cows. 



i 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 357 

WETTING THE TEATS WITH MILK. 

Some people are in the habit, when first sitting down to milk, of drawing 
a little milk to wet their hands and the teats of the cow. It is not a cleanly- 
practice and should always be avoided. I have seen milkers with their hands 
gummed up with filth, and the reeking compound of milk, dirt and manure, 
oozing out from between the fingers and dropping into the pail, as the result 
of this bad habit referred to. In some dairies a great deal of milk is tainted 
in this way, and not unfrequently this taint shows itself in a very marked 
degree in the butter and cheese manufactured. Many thoughtless persons 
have the impression that milk in some way purifies itself and that taints 
imparted in the way I have named cannot be carried into the butter and 
cheese. Such ideas are very erroneous, and the sooner correct notions are 
had in regard to the purity and cleanliness of milk for dairy purposes, the 
sooner shall we arrive at a higher standard of excellence in dairy products, 
and as a consequence better prices be obtained. 

MILK WITH DRY HANDS. 

Cows do not milk any easier with wet hands than with dry hands. If the 
udder or teats are muddy or covered with filth, they should be washed with clean 
water and wiped dry. Then milk with dry hands and it will soon be found easier 
and pleasanter, even with those who have been accustomed to wetting the 
hands and teats while milking. In summer, when cows are running upon clean 
upland pastures, the udder and teats will generally be clean, except perhaps 
in wet weather. If there is no occasion to wash the udder and teats, it is 
always well to brush over the parts with the hands or with a cloth to remove 
any particles of dust or loose hairs adhering and then set the pail in position 
and commence to milk with dry hands. Uncleanliness in milking is one of 
the great faults in the dairies of this country, and it is one of the causes of 
bad "flavor in dairy products. Every dairyman should fully explain this mat- 
ter to hired help and insist upon cleanly habits in milking. That the fault 
referred to is a serious one and more general than some would at first imagine, 
can very easily be demonstrated by visiting any of the factories at the time 
the milk is being delivered. Let the milk strainers then be closely scrutinized, 
and they will often be found to present a most disgustingly filthy appearance. 
If this mass of filth could be shown to some uncleanly milkers, I hardly think 
they would be willing to taste milk filtered through such material. 

EXPERIMENTS IN COAGULATING MILK. 

Various attempts have been made from time to time to find a substitute 
for rennet in cheese-making. Acids have been used for this purpose, and are 
to some extent employed in Holland at the present time. It is claimed by 
some that when acids are used for coagulating the milk a larger percentage 
of curd is obtained, and that the cheese has longer keeping qualities than 
when rennet is used ; but I believe it to be generally conceded that no sub- 
stance has as yet been found equal to rennet for making a fine, delicate- 



358 Pb ACTIO AL DaIRY HUSBANDRY. 

flavored cheese, such as the markets in England now demand. In regard to 
the use of acids for coagulating milk we have some interesting experiments! | 
made by an English manufacturer, and detailed by him as follows : * 

He procured four pints of milk of the same cow, having a-specific gravity 
of 10.32; to one, rennet was added in the ordinary manner, to the second, tar- 
taric acid, to the third, acetic acid, and to the fourth, hydro-chloric, or- 
muriatic acid. After the lapse of about half-an-hour the curd had formed inl 
the milk to which the rennet had been added. The curd and the whey 
exhibited to test paper the slightest possible acid reaction, and both were 
perfectly sweet to the taste ; further, it was observed that the curd was very 
soft and readily broken up, while the serum or whey was somewhat white and 
opaque, from the retention of a certain amount of the butter of the milk. 
For the coagulation of the second pint of milk thirty-seven grains of tartaric 
acid were required ; the coagulation was effected immediately on the addition 
of the acid ; the whey and curd both exhibited to test paper a strong acid 
reaction and were also perceptibly acid to the taste. The curd in this case 
was firmer, and the whey clear and transparent, almost like water, showing 
that the whole of the butter had been precipitated with the curd. 

No less than one hundred and forty drops by measure of the acetic acid, 
of weight or specific gravity, 10.46, were necessary to precipitate the whole 
of the curd contained in the third pint of milk. The curd and whey pre- 
sented nearly the same character as in the previous case. Of muriatic acid, 
of specific gravity, 11.65, seventy-five drops were added before the whole of _ 
the curd in the fourth pint of milk was thrown down ; the curd and whey I 
were more decidedly acid than in the former cases. In other respects their 
characters were nearly the same. The whey was carefully separated from 
the curd in each case, when it was ascertained that those curds which had beenfl 
formed by the addition of acids were heavier and more bulky than those 
from the rennet. The curds were then well washed with brine ; this occa- 
sioned some loss, especially of the rennet curd. The application of the brine 
was made in order the more completely to separate the whey, rennet and 
acids employed in the precipitation of the curds. Lastly, the curds were 
salted and pressed into small cheeses, those made with the acids being the 
largest. 

AMOUNT OF ACIDS REQUIRED. 

For the coagulation, then, of one gallon of milk, no less than five drachms 
of tartaric acid, or rather more than two and one-fourth ounces of acetic acid, 
or one and one-fourth ounces of muriatic acid would be required. The prices 
of these would be about one-halfpenny, one penny, and one-half penny, ster- 
ling, or very nearly, in American coin, one cent, two cents, and one cent. 
The cost of these articles, therefore, it is evident, is an important element to 
be considered. The cheese made with the acids were firmer, sharper to the 
taste, and were of longer-keeping qualities than the one in the preparation 
of which rennet was used ; but the last was richer and more delicate in flavor. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 359 

the advantages of acids over eennet 
would seem, from these experiments, to be that the yield of curd is some- 
what greater ; that their operation is certain, and that the coagulation is 
effected without loss of time. On the other hand, they are expensive, and 
the flavor of the cheese is not equal to the standard now set up as fine in the 
English markets ; that is, a cheese preserving unimpaired the combined flavor 
of the caseine and butter of the milk. These expex-iments may be interesting 
to cheese manufacturers, and may serve as a basis or guide for future experi- 
ments, by those who are looking for a substance different from rennet for 
coagulating milk in cheese-making. The acid usually employed by the Dutch 
is muriatic acid. Some of the Dutch cheese is excellent, and is highly 
relished by those who have acquired a taste for this character of cheese. 

EENNETS. 

There is a great deal of loose writing and bad advice about rennets. 
There is a great difference in the strength of rennets, and so there is a great 
difference in the action of living stomachs for digesting food. Some stom- 
achs are naturally weak, or have less vital energy than others. This is of 
frequent occurrence in the human family, and is not confined to it alone, but 
extends to the brute creation. Calves that are delicate eaters, that have 
weak stomachs and impaired digestion, yield weak rennets. It is the strong, 
healthy, vigorous calf, and one that has a perfect digestive apparatus, that 
will give a rennet of great strength. I have made some carefully conducted 
experiments on this point, which have convinced me that one source, at 
least, of weak rennets, is due to the cause I have named. There are other 
causes, as when the stomachs have been improperly saved and prepared. 
Many salt down the stomachs in a cask or tub. It is a very bad practice, 
and has been the cause of a great deal of mischief in the dairy. The trouble 
with salting down rennets and packing a considerable number together is 
this : If one diseased or bad rennet gets into the cask, it communicates its 
taint to the whole mass, and the leaven once having been added, develops 
with wonderful rapidity, so soon as circumstances become favorable, — and 
these circumstances do become favorable, when it is added to the milk at a 
temperature as high as 80®. 

WHAT CALVES TO TAKE EENNETS FEOM. 

Rennets should only be saved from healthy calves ; from those that have 
been allowed all the milk they will take for at least four days, and up to 
within some twelve or fourteen hours of slaughter. A calf that has been 
starved will be likely to have a diseased and inflamed stomach, and if it is 
used for cheese-making it will most assuredly impair the flavor of the cheese, 
A good, healthy stomach having been selected, the contents should be 
emptied out and all specks wiped off. Then it should either be blown up 
like a bladdei-, or slightly salted and stretched on a forked stick, and hung 
up in a dry atmosphere, only moderately warm. 



360 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



IiEJSrJ!fETS BADLY PKEPARED. 

Some cheese-makers prepare rennets badly, by soaking in wooden casks 
or barrels. There are many tons of cheese spoiled in flavor every year 
simply on this account. It is almost an impossibility to keep a wooden 
vessel sweet that is used for steeping rennet. I have used the most scrupulous 
care, over and over again, with Avooden vessels, and have never succeeded in 
keeping them sweet for any considerable length of time. Rennet tubs and 
rennets are often tainted when the cheese-maker is not aware of the fact. I 
have frequently been called to examine cheese that was out of flavor, or 
acting badly, with a view of discovering the difficulty, and have often found 
the whole trouble to come from a tainted rennet cask. So important do I 
consider this single point, that it may be laid down as a rule that no first- 
class, high-flavored cheese can be made, for any considerable length of time, 
where wooden casks are used for steeping rennets. 

THE STEEPING VESSELS 

should be of stone ware. They are manufactured now for the purpose, of 
various sizes — of five, ten, twenty or more gallons. We give illustration of 

the jar (Fig. 5). Farmers who have been so 
unfortunate as to have had pork tainted in 
the barrel, know how difficult it is to cleanse 
the cask ; and many who have attempted 
it have lost their pork, by packing in a 
barrel that has once been tainted. Rennets 
are more liable to taint, while steeping, than 
salt meats, and common sense should teach us 
that wooden vessels ought never to be employed 
for the purpose. 

STEEPING IN WHET. 

Rennets are more efficient when steeped in 
FiGUKE 5. whey ; but the whey should be free from taint 

in the first instance, and then freed from its albuminous matter. Rennet 
does not act on the albumen of milk, and this nitrogenous constituent passes 
off in the whey. Albumen coagulates at a high temperature. By heating 
the whey to boiling, the albuminous matter coagulates, and may be skimmed 
off. This should be done soon after drawing the whey from the vats, and 
before it has begun to ferment and putrefy. When whey is used for steeping 
rennet, before it is freed from albumen, it is often decomposed and putrid, 
and a very dangerous ferment is therefore added to the milk, which carries a 
taint to the cheese. Some people save the whey that runs from the press in 
which to steep rennets. This is a very bad practice. On putting cheese to 
press, a whitish, milky substance often flows out at the first pressure. This 
whey is probably highly charged with albumen. The whey having been 
freed from its albumen, if set aside, makes a very sharp acid, and is alto- 




Practical Dairy Husbaxdry. ■ 361 

gether the best liquid for steeping rennet that has yet been discovered. It 
is this purified whey that should be used for developing an acid condition of 
the curds, when necessary. 

After the rennets have been soaked, and rubbed to extract their strength 
(and this will occupy several days, the rubbing being performed at least three 
or four times), the liquor should then be strained off into a clean stone cask 
or rennet jar, and is fit for use. The rennets are then to be put to soak again 
with whey as at first, and are rubbed from time to time until their strength 
is exhausted. They may then be taken out, washed in whey, and the liquor 
added to that in the jar and the rennets thrown away. It is not a good prac- 
tice to add new rennets to those that have been steeping, and thus keep a 
batch of rennets in soak during the whole season, as there is more liability 
of their becoming tainted ; and when their strength has once been exhausted 
they are useless in the rennet jar, and it is better to have them out of it. 
When sour whey is used for steeping but little salt is needed. The rennets 
should not be allowed to float on the whey. By using a stone crock cover, 
they may be kept at the bottom of the whey. 

EXAMINE RENNETS DAILY. 

I hardly need to add that rennets should be examined daily, while steep- 
ing, and the liquor stirred to keep it sweet and free from taint. Nor should 
the liquor be used from the crock where the rennets are steeping, before 
being strained through a thin cloth, as small pieces rubbed from the skins 
get into the milk, and are worked up into the curds. 

PREPARING RENNET ENGLISH METHOD. 

I have given what I consider the best method to be adopted by dairy- 
men and at factories for the preparation of rennet for cheese-making. I now 
give the method recommended in the best dairies of England, and it may be 
found suggestive in many particulars. It is always an advantage to the 
cheese that the rennet should be prepared some time before it is wanted for 
use ; and English dairymen recommend that it should be made in February 
or March, and that as large a quantity be provided as can be conveniently 
done, consistently with the size of the dairy. They find large olive jars 
useful for steeping the rennet, some of which will hold thirty gallons. A 
hole is made at the bottom to draw the rennet, and they think it much better 
to draw it in this way from the bottom, than to disturb it at the top by dip- 
ping out. A wooden tap should be used, as the acidity of the liquid has an 
injurious effect on a metal one. They have a piece of board with holes per- 
forated in it to put into the jar under the veils or rennets, to prevent their . 
getting to the bottom and obstructing the liquid running out by getting 
against the taps. The rennet is prepared by first making a. brine strong 
enough to bear an Qg^. It is then boiled for half an hour, and when quite 
cold put into the jar. For every two gallons of brine six veils are added, 
one lemon, sliced, and one ounce of saltpeter. They claim that rennet should 



362 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

always be prepared at least two months before using, and there will then be 
less cause for the cheese to be affected with undue fermentation, which is 
injurious to fine flavor. 

ASSOCIATED DAIRYING. 

The idea of associated dairying, as has been remarked, is claimed to have 
originated in Europe. The system, it is true, has been practiced to some 
extent in Switzerland and in France, but it differs materially from that of 
this country. The European system grew out of a necessity. It was the 
offspring of poverty rather than of wealth. The peasants of a neighborhood, 
each having one or two cows, united them in one lai'ge herd. They employed 
a herdsman in common, and sent him with the herd to the mountainous por- 
tions of the Alps. Here the herdsman and his assistants take charge of the 
cattle for a certain number of months, turning the milk into cheese, which, 
at the end of the season, is divided among the owners of the cows, in propor- 
tion to the number furnished by each. Cheese cannot be manufactured to 
advantage from one or two cows ; but under this system the poorest peasant 
makes the product- of his one cow compete successfully in the market with 
that made from the large herds of the wealthy, since it is similar in shape 
and quality. In other words, he has a merchantable article, which he could 
not obtain singly and alone. 

Now, the European system accomplished no grand results. It did not 
spread, or become generally adopted among the nations. It developed no 
new principle, either in the art of manufacturing the milk or in the economy 
of laboi'-saving appliances. It attracted no particular attention, because it 
developed nothing new. Associated dairying in America may be said to be 
the first successful movement in this direction. What distinguishes the 
American system is the constant effort to reduce the whole art and practice 
of dairying to a science. The buildings, the appliances, the manipulations 
in the various departments, are matters of study, and of progress and econ- 
omy. The grand result sought is to make associated capital pay better than 
non-associated capital. It is a new application of an old principle. It is 
adapting the rule to farming that has been found successful in commerce and 
manufactures. 

THE POPULAE METHOD OF ORGANIZING FACTORIES, 

and one which seems to give good satisfaction, is to make them joint-stock 
concerns. The ground is selected, and an estimate made of buildings, 
machinery and fixtures. The whole cost is then divided up into shares of 
fifty to one hundred dollars each, and the neighboring farmers, or those favor- 
able to the movement, take stock in proportion to the number of cows from 
which they are to deliver milk. Officers are chosen, and the company man- 
aged as a joint-stock company. "We give the following forms, as a guide to 
companies about erecting factories, or for old factories which have been 
operating without any written form or regulations : 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 363 

FORM FOR CERTIFICATE OF STOCK. 



Cream Cheese Dairy Manufacturing Company. 

Organized 1865. 

No. 1872. [cut] One Share. 

It is hereby Certified^ That United States Grant is the propiHe- 
tor of one share in the Capital Stock of the Cream Cheese Dairy Manufactur- 
ing Company, each share being One Hundred Dollars, transferable ordy on the 
books of tlie Company by the Stockholder, or by an Attorney duly constituted, on the 
return of this Certificate. 

In Testimony Whereof, the President and Secretary have hereunto set their 
hands, at Lenox, this 2d day of February, 1871. 

General Thomas, President. 
John Ditto, Secretary. 



The following form is printed on back of the certificate : 

For Value Received, hereby sell and transfer to.: 

. . . .Share of tlie within mentioned stock, and do hereby countenance and appoint. 
Attorney to transfer the same on the books of tJie Company. 

Witness, luind and seal , this day of 187. . 



rules for organizing factories. 

"We, the undersigned, hereby agree and unite ourselves into a body or association for the purpose of 
erecting and building a Cheese Factory, and for the purpose also of running said factory to make cheese 
from the milk which shall or may be brought in from time to time to said factory by members of the asso- 
ciation and other persons, to be made or manufactured into cheese at a certain price for the work and 
materials expended from time to time, to be fixed by the association. 

Said building or manufactory is to be one hundred feet by thirty-four in size, and three stories high, 
to be built of good and substantial materials, and suitable and convenient in its arrangements for the pur- 
pose intended, and is to be located on the land of 

It shall be known by the name and style of , and it is agreed by and 

between the parties to these presents, that they shall and will at all times during the continuance of such 
association bear, pay and discharge equally between them, all cost of building said factory, and all rents 
and other expenses, and for liired help that may be required for the support and management of the said 
business ; and that all gains, profits and increase that shall come, grow or arise from or by means of the 
said business, shall be divided between them, said association, share and share alike ; and all loss that shall 
happen to them in said joint business, by all commodities, or by bad debts or otlierwise, shall be borne 
and paid equally between them ; and there shall be kept just and true books of account and entry of the 
resolutions and doings of said association, showing the true state of the operations of said association by 
reason or on account of said business, and all matters and things whatsoever to the said business and 
management thereof in any wise belonging ; which said books shall be used in common between the 
members of said association, so that either of them may have access thereto without any interruption or 
hindrance of the other. 

And it is hereby further agreed that all questions arising as to the way and manner of conducting said 
business and as to the person or persons to be employed as help by the association, and all and every matter 
of interest, of whatever thing or nature, to the association, shall always, in case of dispute, be decided by 
a majority vote, which shall be entered of record and the time for the continuance of said association or 

of any member thereof, and entry of any new member shall, in case of dispute, be decided in 

the same way, and recorded. 

In witness whereof, the parties to these presents have hereunto set their hands and seals, this 

day of 18 

ANOTHER FORM FOR ORGANIZING. 

Article I. This Association shall be known as the Dairy Manufacturing Company. 

Art. n. The business of this association shall be under the direction and control of a Board of 
three Directors, There shall also be a Secretary and Treasurer ; all of which shall hold their respective 
offices one year, and until others are elected. 

Art. HI. The annual meeting of this company shall be held on the first Saturday in January of each 
year, at the cheese house belonging to this company, at two o'clock, P. M., at which time the officers 
authorized by the second article shall be elected, and any and all business connected with this company shall 
be lawfully transacted — each share of stock being entitled to one vote. 



364 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Akt. rV. At said annual meeting said directors shall make a report in ■writing of the financial 
condition of the company, showing all moneys received and expended by said directors. 

Art. V. The Secretary shall keep a record of all meetings of the company, for the examination of 
stockholders ; also a list of stockholders and of all transfer of stock reported him. 

Abt. VI. It shall be the duty of the President of the Board of Directors, in connection with the 
Secretary, to issue certificates of the capital stock of the company to each shareholder — each share to be 
one hundred dollars ; also to issue new certificates in case of transfer, to the party purchasing the same, all 
of which shall be duly numbered, dated and recorded. 

Art. VII. All sale or transfer of the capital stock of this company shall be in writing, and be reported 
to the Secretary within thirty days after such sale or transfer, or be of no binding form on the company. 

Art. VIII. All moneys paid by the Treasurer shall be by the consent of the Directors, and on the 
written order of the President of such Board of Directors. 

Art. IX. Any stockholder refusing or failing to promptly pay any and all assessments made on his 
stock (not exceeding one hundred dollars on each share) within the time ordered, shall forfeit to the company 
any and all payments formerly made, but nothing in the article shall release such delinquent stockholder 
from a suit at law for the recovery of any assessments due and unpaid by him. 

Art. X. The Directors shall not incumber or impair otherwise the property of this company. 

Art. XI. A special meeting may be held in pursuance of a call of the Directors in writing to be filed 
with the Secretary, giving at least (7) seven days' notice of the time and place of such meeting ; and it shall 
be the duty of the Secretary, in case of such notice of a special meeting being delivered to him, to post 
in (3) three public places, and also an the cheese house front door, a written notice of the time and place of 
such meeting. It shall also be the duty of the Secretary to give notice of the annual meeting of the com- 
pany, by posting (3) three notices as provided for a special meeting. 

Art. XII. The capital stock of this company shall be Three Thousand Dollars, in shares of One 
Hundred Dollars each. 

Art. XIII. The foregoing By-Laws, or any one of them, may be repealed or amended at any annual 
meeting, by a majority vote of the stock represented, there being not less than sixteen shares represented 
at such meeting. 

CKEAM CHEESE DAIRY MANUFACTURING CO. NOTICE TO PATRONS. 

The Directors are happy to announce to the public that they have secured the valuable services of 
Mr. Wm. Shakspeare, and that they will be prepared to commence the manufacture of Cheese on Monday, 
April 12th, upon the following 

TERMS : 

1, Two Dollars, Twelve and one-half Cents per Hundred Pounds (to be deducted from the 
receipts at eacn sale), and one good rennet for each four hundred pounds of cheese ; which shall include 
manufacturing, curing, furnishing and ordinary expense, delivering the cheese at the door of the dry house 
ready for market. 

S. The company will not be responsible for any loss by fire, theft, or other similar cause. 

3. It is expressly understood that every person sending milk to this Factory will conform to the 
following 

REGULATIONS : 

1. All milk to be received for manufacture must be carefully strained and brought to the factory in 
a tin can without faucet, pure and sweet. 

2. Any milk which by reason of negligence, uncleanliness or other cause, is not in suitable condition 
for use WILL be rejected if discovered before it is let into the vat. 

3. If any person shall bring milk which has been skimmed, watered, or otherwise tampered with in 
a manner forbidden by law, then upon obtaining proof sufficient to convict the ofiender, the directors will 
prosecute such person and will not compromise or settle only as he pays the full penalty of the law and 

ALL DAMAGE ACCRUING FROM HIS OFFENSE, 

4. It shall be the duty of the manufacturer, at least once in each week, to carefully test the milk from 
each and every dairy, and in case he shall find any that has been skimmed or watered or otherwise in viola- 
tion of law, shall at once report the same to the dii-ectors, and to no other person, and they will then take 
such measures as they think expedient to obtain conclusive proof against the offender. 

5. It is necessary that milk should be delivered at the factory before eight o'clock in the morning of 
each day, and the manufacturer will not be required to receive it after that time. 

6. Each patron may take from the factory his share of whey in proportion each day to the amount 
of milk delivered the day previous ; the-quantity to be regulated by the manufacturer. 

7. These regulations shall apply to each director in all respects the same as to any other patron. 

DAN'L WEBSTER, ) 
HENRY CLAY, ^Directors. 
Cbeam Hill, N. Y., April 10th, 1871. J. C. CALHOUN, ) 

SELLING THE CHEESE. 

Usually a committee or some one person selected from the patrons, is 
chosen as salesman of the cheese, whose duty it is to make sales at best prices 
to be had, to arrange dividends and to pay over shares to patrons, deducting 
of course the price per pound for manufacturing, which is made to cover all, 
including the per cent, on cost of buildings and fixtures. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 365 

CERTIFICATE OF SALE. 

The accompanying form should be filled out to be given to each patron at 
the time of paying over his share of proceeds ; a book of printed blanks 
being provided for the purpose : 

form of blank. 

Old Salisbury Cheese Factory, 1871. 

Sale No No. of Cheese sold, Price sold for Whole 

amount of Cheese sold lbs. Milk Comprising Cheese from 

to both days included. Pounds of Milk required for one pound of Cheese 

DIVIDEND TO 

Pounds of Milk, Pounds of Cheese, Amounts due2 cts. per lb. 

for making, &c., deducted, % 

, Salesman. 

PAYIlSrG the MANUFACTURER BY THE POUND. 

Sometimes a good cheese-maker is employed as manufacturer and manager, 
at a certain price per pound of the cheese manufactured. This manager 
employs his laborers or assistants, and bears all expense of running the factory, 
taking care of cheese, keeping record of milk delivered daily by different 
patrons, entering the same on the books of the factory, and upon the pass- 
books of patrons. Often the Company employ the manufacturer and all hands 
at fixed salaries. Some prefer one plan and some another. The milk is 
weighed at the factory when delivered, and as experience has shown that 
every ten pounds of milk (as an average for the season) should make one 
pound of cured cheese, firm, solid and in good marketable condition, each 
farmer thus has a daily record in his pass-book of what his herd is yielding. 
The manager is employed with the understanding that he is to make a good, 
fair article, and his product is examined from time to time by committees, by 
experts, and by patrons as they see fit, and thus bad work is soon detected. 
If the management is not satisfactory the cheese-maker is discharged, or the 
causes of the bad work traced out and rectified. 

The stock-holders, and those delivering milk may meet from time to time 
and deliberate as to sales ; each one voting according to the number of cows 
from which he delivers milk, and in this way instructions are issued to the 
salesman. 

FACTORY OWNED AND MANAGED BY ONE PERSON. 

Then there is another method of establishing factories. One man or a 
company erects buildings and bears all expenses of running the factory, charg- 
ing by the pound of cured cheese for manufacturing. The cheese in this 
instance, it will be seen, belongs to patrons, who appoint a salesman and con- 
trol the product precisely as under the other method. We give a form of 
rules and regulations applicable to such cases ; also to cases where the pro- 
prietor of a factory pui'chases the milk of patrons. Of course these rules 
may be varied to meet the views of persons in different localities. 



3G6 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

EULES AND REGULATIONS FOK THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SINCLEARYILLE 

CHEESE FACTORY. 

I. The proprietor of the factory is to make and take care of the cheese, furnish boxes salt 
swathing, coloring matter, box and weigh the cheese, mark the boxes, make out bills tally out 
cheese lo ciieese drawers, keep the books, receive the cheese and tally the same at the point of 
delivery, receive the money tor the cheese and disburse the same among the patrons, for the sum 
of two cents (.02) per pound; this includes patrons sending milk Ave months. Psitrons .sending 
milk four months and less than five months will be charged two cents and one mill (.031) per pound 
Patrons sending milk three months and less than lour months will be charged two cents and two' 
mills (.023) per pound. Patrons sending milk less than three months will be chareed two cents 
and three mills (.023) per pound for manufacturing, ^u^igeu iwo cents 

II. Each patron sending milk to the factory is to furnish one good calf rennet, in good order 
to each cow's milk sent to the factory, or pay the sum of fifteen cents in lieu thereof. ' 

in. Each patron shall have such proportion of the money received for the cheese as his 
milk bears to the whole quantity furnished by patrons during the time he sends milk to the factorv 
(always subject to part first). ' 

IV. Each patron shall furnish pure, sweet, unskimmed milk, and ench one furnishing milk 
shall strain the same before it is delivered at the factory, and if any is reserved for use, it shall be 
of an average quality given by his cows. 

V. The milk of each patron delivered at the factory shall be properly tested once in each 
month during the season, and the result shall be publicly stated to those patrons requiring the same. 

VI. Any patron that knowingly skims, waters or adulterates his milk in any form, or takes 
out the strippings, shall forfeit the sum of iwenty-flve dollars for the first offense, and the sum of 
fifty dollars for the second otfense, and for the third offense he shall forfeit his whole interest in 
the factory. If his interest does not amount to seventy-five dollars, he shall pay the proprietor 
enough to make seventy-five dollars. All forfeit money received shall be disbursed among the 
patrons interested in tne same, in proportion to their interest. When such facts come to the 
knowledge of the proprietor, he shall retain the money received for cheese, and dispose of as 
aforesaid. 

VII. No milk shall be worked into cheese which, In the judgment of the manufacturer, will 
be a damage to the general interest of the patrons. 

VIII. Each patron shall bring his milk as often as the manufacturer shall require, and at or 
before the time he may require, and all cans must be washed and scalded daily, and kept sweet 
and clean. ^ 

IX. Each patron shall be to his proportion of the expense of getting the cheese to market. 

X. There shall be a coiimittee on sale of cheese, said committee to consist of three persons 
having interest in the cheese. The committee shall be Wili,iam Reed, Fordyce Sylvester and 
John D. Barger. Said committee shall have power to sell the cheese once in each week, if in 
their judgment they think best, and shall see that the cheese is delivered according to contract. 

XI. That each patron who has a load of cheese at the time of sale shall be notified bv com- 
mittee on sale of cheese, and if such patron fail to appear at the time specified in the notice, he 
shall pay all extra necessary expenses and damages for the delivery or failure of the same. 

XII. There shall be a committee on whey ; that committee shall be composed of three pat- 
rons, namely, Henry Dunbar, Thomas Speak, Russell, Sears. 

XIII. Any patron may take his proportion of whey and dispose of the same ns he sees fit, 
providing he notifies the whey committee in writing of the same on or before he sends his milk to 
the factory, providing he draws his whey from the bottom of the whey vat; otherwise he will 
have to stand the loss or gain in proportion to his milk sent to the factory. No patron shall take 
"■i?^'!?'/*^*^,^'® ^^'"^"^ two-thirds as much in bulk of whey as he sends milk to the factory. No patron 
enall feed whey to cows when milk is sent to the factory. 

. ^ XI'^- The whey committee shall have power to dispose of the balance of the whey to the 
best general interest and advantage of the patrons, in their judgment. 

XV. That the profit or loss on whey shall be divided or assessed on the patrons owning the 
same, in proportion to the amount of milk sent to the factory. 

, ^■^^■^" '^^^ proprietor agrees to make the whey butter, and furnish sufficient to oil the cheese, 
tne balance to be divided— the patrons to have one-third and the proprietor two-thirds of the 
profits, the proprietor to furnish salt and tubs. 

XVII. Resolved, That all cheese sold shall be paid for on delivery. 

, ^ ^yill- The proprietor shall take care of the cheese up to the first of December. If kept 
later, a fair compensation is to be allowed him. 

XIX. Each person furnishing milk to the factory is hereby understood as agreeing to the 

, Chairman. 

, Clerk. 

, Proprietor. 

EULES POE FACTORY WHERE THE PROPRIETOR PURCHASES THE MILK OF 

PATRONS. 

ill ^i 77 ~ < Proprietor of the Cheese Factory, agrees as follows : To purchase the 

milk of the said Patons of the Cheese Factory for the year 1871, and to commence making 

cheese on or about the first of April, and close on or about the first of November next. 

II. For value received, T promise to pay to each patron of the Cheese Factorv. for his 

or her milk, as follows : As much per pound for his or her milk as the milk of any factory they 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 367 

^L°H.f f!^f *l**^?"^.^^''!f JI?®y ''educt expenses for making: and furnishing and gettinff the cheese 
'XlnsZ'^^^l'oTj^^^l^^^Lr^l^^^^^^^ "' addition, and take the Ixilk a^t the ^act^o^^.th^ 

taiaerho,7m;rcir;acl ' mo.ft!.Vmflk ll CT ^'' "^'^^^'"'^^ °f °^«°ey as soon as it can be ascer- 

IV. The patrons are to choose, on or before the first day of June, one of the following facto- 
ries for a basis to make our estimates on, namely: Charlotte Center, Arkwright UniorT, Clear 
Spring:, Walnut Creek or Hamlet Factory. The factory chosen shall be by a v< te of patn/ns at a 
meeting called tor that purpose. The meeting is to be called by the proprietor at any time when 
twoor more of the patrons may direct. ux 0.1. aujr uuio wuen 

V. Each patron may talie his proportion of the whey away ; that is, two-thirds as miioh In 
bulk as he or she sends milk to the factory. If he or she takes their whey aAvay the v wilTnot be 
entitled to the benefit of the three per cent., but will be entitled to all othlr tenlfits that anv 

o„„», J^* f^^^- patron sending milk to the factory is to furnish pure, sweet, unskimmed milk and 
each one furnishing- milk shall strain the same at the time of milkiAg, and if anvis reseived IV.7- 
use It shall be of the average quality given by his or her cows. ^ ^®^ ^^' 

fr. ^^h ,-^"'*' P'^t™" *'iat knowingly skims, waters or adulterates his or her milk in anv wnv or 

of r.^ l^f^^f 'l'? P®^:^''" I'll'! brinsr his or her milk as often as the manufacturer shall require and 
dii'?;,^^n'd^^bU'rpt'^'^L^!.n'S^cffl"'^^'^"" "" ^^'^^ ^"^ -"^ »^-'^ -"^^ be washed a^r?<l"Jc^aru"e2 
going nilts?^ ^''*'°" ^^°'^'°^ °^"'^ to tl^e factory is herely understood as agreeing to the fore- 

, Proprietor. 

^ It will be observed that, under this system of checks, all men who deliver 
milk are upon an equal footing, where no advantage can be taken ; for the 
farmer, if he chooses, can weigh his milk at home, and compare it with the 
figures entered at the factory upon his pass-book. The company is responsi- 
ble for milk delivered. The account is payable in cheese ; this part of the 
system being somewhat like that in making deposits at bank. 

NUMBER OF COWS. 

The number of cows varies greatly— from three hundred to fifteen hun- 
dred, or even more. Experience shows that a factory with less than three 
hundred cows will not pay expenses, including interest on capital invested in 
building, fixtures, &c., unless an extra rate be charged for manufacturing. 
Extremely large factories, say of fifteen hundred cows, do not give the best 
returns to farmers. There is usually more waste ; the milk coming from a 
long distance is often in bad condition, and the work at the factory is from 
time to time slighted. The best results are obtained, both as to quantity 
and quality of product, when the factory uses the milk of from five hundred 
to eight hundred cows, and not above one thousand. 

FACTORY BUILDINGS. 

Improvements are constantly being made in buildings. The early facto- 
ries were rude and imperfect structures. The late erections are more sub- 
stantially built, but very plain in style, with no pretensions to architectural 
beauty. This is a mistake. A competent architect should be employed, 
who should give designs for a handsome exterior, imposing, graceful and 
pleasing to the eye. The cost would not be very much more, but the value 
of such buildings would be greatly enhanced, and could be turned to good 
account in case they were abandoned for cheese-making. In some establish- 



368 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

ments the manufacturing department and curing rooms are under one roof • 
in others these are separated. The system of marketing cheese in America 
is somewhat different from that in England. The cheese is not held for so ■ 
great a length of time while curing. We try to send our cheese to market f 
when it is from thirty to sixty days old. There are few curing rooms built 
with the design of holding cheese for the entire season. Without attempt- 
ing to originate new plans for model buildings, it Avill perhaps suffice to pre- 
sent plans of modern factories which are esteemed as among the first class. 
The Fairfield and the Willow Grove Factory send out cheese favorably 
known in the English markets. They have for several years received " top'j 
prices " from English shippers. 



I 



THE FAIRFIELD FACTOBT 

is located in Herkimer Co., N. Y., eight miles from Little Falls, the largest 
country cheese market in America. It receives the milk from one thousand 
cows. The manufacturing department and curing room (" dry house ") are 
under one roof The establishment is one hundred and forty-eight feet long 
by thirty-eight feet wide and three stories high. The second and third 
stories are for curing rooms. The manufacturing room is forty by twenty- 
eight feet ; press room thirty-five by thirty-one feet. The boiler, of five-horse 
power, stands in a separate room, and cost four hundred and fifty dollars. 
The manufacturing room is supplied with double vats for cheese-making. 
These vats are each sixteen feet long, three feet four inches wide, and 
eighteen inches deep, holding six hundred gallons. I may remark here that 
vats of this size and proportion are convenient for work, and are usually* 
adopted at the factories. They are double, that is, the inner one of tin, set-1 
ting in a wooden vat, with spaces between the two at the sides and bottom, 
where heat is applied — either steam or hot water. 

THE AVILLOW GROVE FACTORY 

is in Oneida County. The dry house sets upon high stone piers, and is one 
hundred feet by thirty feet, and two stories. The manufacturing department 
is in a separate building, being thirty by twenty-eight feet, with press room 
twenty-six by fourteen feet. This factory has capacity for the milk of one 
thousand cows. 

wight's whitesboro factory, 

in Oneida Co., IST. Y., has also a high reputation in the English markets. It 
was erected for six hundred cows ; dry house one hundred and four by thirty 
feet ; two stories. Directly opposite stands the manufacturing department, 
which is twenty-six by fifty feet. 

THE SAITBORN FACTORY. 

We give elevation and plan (see Figs. 6 and 1) of a very neat and con- 
venient factory, erected at Sanborn, N. Y. It is thirty-six feet wide by 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 




24 



370 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



seventy-five feet long and three stories high above the basement. The manu- 
facturing department is in the basement, and the curing rooms above. On 
the first floor above the basement a living-room, bed-room, pantry, &c., are 
finished ofi", as apartments for the manufacturer. The building was erected 




Q 



||o|o|0loioll |!o|o|(g|oio"11 ||o|o|<ZT|o|"oi 

Iw 



w 



3w 



_J w| 

Figure 7. — Gkoiind Plan. 

Desceiption op GKOtTND Plan. — A, Platform for receiving milk, half outside of building, and four feet 
above basement floor. B, Millar vat and heater. C, Fire room. D, D, D, D, Millar vat, 600 gallons. 
E, Whey spout, level with basement floor. F, F, F, Fifteen presses. G, Drop below main floor. 
H, Conduit for slop water ; floor descending each way thirty inches from main floor. I, Cellar for 
family use. J, Cistern. K, Main floor, twenty-two by fifty feet. L, Sinks on castors. M, M, M, 
Doors. W, W, W, Windows. 

by a stock company, at a cost of some $6,000. The subjoined ground 
plan and description of the manufacturing room (Fig. 7) will be readily 
understood. 




Figure 8. —Basement. 
A HERKIMEE COITNTT FANCY FACTOET. 

One of the most convenient of the modern factories is that recently 
erected at Newville, Herkimer Co., N. Y. The whole establishment is 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



371 



under one roof, the structure being three stories high. The manufactory is 
in the basement or first story, and the living rooms of manufacturer 
in the second story, with cellar in basement and chambers in third story. 
The illustrations (Figs. 8, 9 and 10) show the rooms in the different stories, 




FiGtTRE 9. — Second Stoet. 

and the position of apparatus in the basement. These plans, with those 
previously given, will be useful to those about building factories, or for those 
who contemplate remodeling old structures, while at the same time they give 
the reader a clearer idea of the buildings than any written description alone. 

THE COST. 

The cost of buildings, of course, varies in different localities, and must be 




FiGUEE 10. — Thied Stokt. 

regulated according to taste in architecture, cost of material, labor, &c., &c. 
Factories in the State of New York cost from |3,000 to $10,000. The prin- 
cipal cost of machinery will be for steam boiler, milk vats, presses and 



372 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

hooj)s. Steam boiler, with fixtures, say $500; vats, $100 each; screw 
presses, |4 each. A factory for six hundred cows may be fitted up in good 
running order for from |1,200 to $1,500. Yats with heater attached, which 
will obviate having steam boiler, are sold (six hundred gallon size) for about 
|200 each. A factory with from six hundred to eight hundred cows will 
need five hands, and jDerhaps, when the curing rooms are full, more help. 
The manufacturer or head manager, if skillful, will command from $800 to 
$1,000 and board, for the cheese-making season of nine months. The second 
man, who perhaps has worked at tlie business a year or more, gets, say from 
$35 to $50 per month and board, and women from $4 to $5 per week and 
board. Women not unfrequently take charge of factories as head managers, 
at salaries sometimes as high as $80 to $100 per month and board. Boys 
and girls, or young persons of immature age, are not usually employed. 
The head manufacturer at a factory is expected to " take ofi" his coat," and 
do a good day's work every day — seeing to the delivery of the milk, working 
at the curds, the presses, and all the time with a sharp eye to see that all 
moves on in order and on time. The quantity of milk received must of 
course depend on a variety of circumstances — goodness of cows, quality of 
pasturage, the season, and time of commencing and closing operations. The 
Weeks' Factory, at Yerona, Oneida Co., N". Y., in 1867, had an average of 
six hundred and forty cows ; length of season, two hundred and nine days ; 
pounds of milk received, 2,481,615; green cheese made, 261,904 pounds; 
cured cheese, 250,540 pounds ; shrinkage, four and one-third per cent. ; 
pounds of milk to green cheese, nine and forty-eight one hundredths ; pounds 
of milk for cured cheese, nine and ninety-one one hundredths. The gross 
receipts per cow (average for the season, exclusive of income from butter 
and cheese made before factory oj)ened and after close) varied from $34 to 
$78, the former being the poorest dairies and the latter the best. The 
cheese sales in 1867 were low, the average at the Weeks' Factory being 
only $14.40 per one hundred pounds. The receipts during other yeai's have 
been much larger. Some of the factories in Herkimer Co. make an average 
of five hundred pounds to the cow, which, at present prices (fifteen cents), 
would give $75. This wovild be too large an estimate, however, for a novice 
to base dairy prospects upon. 

DISTANCE IN DELIVEEING MILK. 

The average distance from which milk is brought will not exceed one and 
a-half miles, and perhaps in the old dairy districts in oSTew York is a little 
less. Four or five miles may be set down as the maximum, except in rare 
cases, as at the West, where we have reports of milk being carted eight 
miles and more ; and yet, if cooled at the farm, arriving at the factory in 
good condition. Such a long distance is regarded as altogether too far to 
cart milk with profit, especially on our country roads, which, for the most 
part, are rough during a considerable portion of the year. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 373 

cooling milk at the farm. 

The practice of cooling milk at the farm does not usually obtain among 
dairymen. Canning milk too warm, and hauling it in this condition to the 
factory, results in great losses to dairymen. It is now several years since I 
commenced urging the importance of cooling milk at the farm, and as soon 
as drawn from the cow, and most especially have I urged this principle since 
returning from my visit to European dairies. After an extended observa- 
tion over the dairy districts of Great Britain, and an examination of the best 
English methods, it was clear that in the matter of cleanliness, care of milk 
and of stock, management of j)asturage, &c., the English were in advance of 
us ; but in machinery and appliances for manufacturing, the Americans were 
a long way in advance of the English. My report upon English methods, 
&c., has effected a change in American dairy practice, and it is pleasant to 
know that the bad practices of our dairymen are being corrected. We are 
now beginning to cool milk at the farm, and as a consequence the character 
of American cheese must greatly improve. If milk is exposed to the air and 
cooled to 60°, when drawn from the cow and before canning, it may then be 
canned, and will arrive at the factory in good order. It is quite important 
that milk be freely exjDosed to the air, while warm from the cow, in order 
that unpleasant odors may pass off. There are now a number of devices for 
cooling milk at the farm. The Riggs plan is to conduct the milk in zigzag 
channels over a tin plate, with cold water underneath. Mr. Bussey of 
Oneida Co. effects the object by a tin cylinder holding water, and which 
floats upon the surface of the milk in the can. 

Mr. PIawlet of Syracuse has a somewhat similar arrangement. Mr. 
BuBNAP of Schoharie Co. introduces in the can a long tin tube, filled with 
water. Others simj^ly pass the milk over a shallow tin vat, with water 
underneath. Mr. Arnold believes that milk should not only be cooled but 
deodorized, and he effects this by exposing the milk to a current of air. For 
this purpose fans are provided, which are to be put in motion by a weight 
and gearing. The milk falls on a succession of corrugated tin plates, and is 
thus spread out into a thin sheet, while the fans throw forward and through 
it a current of air, which carries away offensive odors. The last plate gathers 
the milk into a stream which falls into the can, and thus both cooling and 
airing are effected. Recently he has invented a ventilator, to be applied to 
the carrying can, which is so arranged as to give the milk ventilation while 
being carried to the factory, and at the same time prevent any escape of 
milk from slopping over during its transit. Mr. Bussey, in his National 
Milk Coolei-, has an improved strainer, which is so arranged as to aerate the 
milk as it falls into the can and upon the cooling apparatus. We give 
illustrations of four forms of coolers (see Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14), which are 
to be applied to the carrying can, are quite inexpensive, and very convenient 
of application. 



374 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



Fig. 11 shows an improved strainer-pail, applied to tlie Busset Cooler, 
which operates in exposing the milk to the atmosjDhere, for the purpose of 
deodorizing it. At Fig. 12 is shown Burnap's Can and Cooler. 




FlGtTKE 11. 

A, Cooler. F, Strainer pail. D and E, Syphon pipe. G, Cover. H, Milk can. M, Milk. O, Ice in the 
cooler. N, Cold water in cooler. 

The principle of the Hawlet Cooler (Fig. 13) is based upon strict philo- 
sophical laws — the cooling of fluids from the top. Fig. 1 represents the 
cooler as placed within the can. The cooler is a hollow chamber, which 
floats upon the milk, and will therefore operate whether there is much or 

little milk in the can. Water is intro- 
duced into this float at the rubber 
spout, B, (Fig. 2,) through funnel 
attached, and is forced out at C when 
more water is poured in. The points 
marked D represent passages through 
the cooler which bring the milk in 
direct contact with the air. By the 
handle, if desired, the cooler can read 
ily be plunged into the milk occasion- 
ally, thus thoroughly agitating the 
entire mass. 

NoETHROP's Automatic Agitating 
Cooler (Fig. 14) consists of an upright 
tube, two or three inches in diameter, 
having a funnel top, in the center of 
which is a pivot, supporting the tube 
FiGUEE 11. -Improved. -^^ ^^ upright position ; the tube rest- 

ing on a pivot at the bottom of the can. At the lower end of the tube, two 
or more agitating and cooling tubes are attached, opening into the upright 
tube ; within the upright tube is an inner tube extending nearly to the bot- 
tom of the upright tube, its upper end being connected, just above the top 




Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



375 



of the can, with one or more discharging arms, which are attached to the 
upright tube, and which extend out and turn downwards over the top edge 




Figure 12. 
A, Can. B, Cooler. C, Strainer. D, Can cooler. E, Can bottom. 

of the can, having their issues adjacent to the side of the can. In operation, 
the cooling liquid (cold water) enters the funnel at the top of the upright 
tube through a faucet, 
from a tank, or spring, 
or penstock, and passes 
down the upright tube 
to the agitating tubes, 
through these to the 
bottom of the upright ' 
tube, thence upward 
through the inner tube 
to the discharging arms, 
out of these arms (the 
issues of which are 
turned in opposite di- 
rections) against the 
outside of the can, the 
reaction of the streams 
of Avater causing the 
whole to revolve, thus 
distributing the water 
evenly all over the out- 
side of the can, and cool- 
ing and stirring the milk 
on the inside of the can. 
The can should be provided with a woolen cloth or jacket (tied on), for the 
purpose of absorbing the water, thereby inclosing the can in a cold armor, 




1 


1 


. 


d\ 


d\ 


" 


d 




u 1 


1 


a. 





Figure 13. 



376 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



the intensity of which is increased by the rapid evaporation from the 
woolen jacket. The illustration (Fig. 15) shows the manner in which the 
frame is arranged for supporting the water tank. The machine is quite sim- 
ple in its arrangement, easily cleaned, and as an agitator and cooler com- 
bined, is one of the best we have seen. 

FACTORY CHARGE FOR MAKI^^G CHEESE. 

The usual charge in large factories for making the cheese is seventy-five 

cents per one hundred pounds cured 
cheese. This includes care of cheese 
until sold. If the factory is small, 
one cent per pound is charged. A 
large number of factories charge two 
cents per pound, and furnish every- 
thing required — bandage, annatto, 
rennet, salt, and the boxes in which 
the cheese is placed for shij^ping. 
Hauling cheese to railroad depot is 
done by patrons, 

THE WHEY. 

The whey is usually fed to hogs, 
sometimes at the factory and some- 
times at the farm. Ample pens and 
yards in the former case are jDrovided 
by factories. Each farmer delivering 
milk is allowed one hog at the fac- 
tory for every five cows. He can 





FlQTTEE 14. 



FiGtJBE 15. 



have a pen where he can keep his hogs separate, or turn them in the 
yard with the others. The whey runs to large reservoirs near the pens, 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 377 

and when the hogs are to be fed, a faucet is opened which lets the whey 
into the troughs. The difficulty of keeping the factory premises free from 
foul odors is so great that the practice of feeding hogs in connection with 
the factory is being abandoned. I should always advise this course, but 
if it is resolved upon to have swine kept at the factory, the pens should be 
located a long distance from the milk and cheese departments, so that there 
be no possibility of the air becoming tainted about the premises. It is alto- 
gether better, however, that the whey be carted home by fanners on the 
return trip of delivering milk at the factory. At some factories the whey is 
considered a perquisite of the mamifacturer or stockholders of the factory, 
who extract the butter from it, purchasing hogs, and feeding them on the 
refuse Avhey. We shall describe the recent processes of making marketable 
butter from whey when we come to treat of butter manufacture. 

BTtANCH PACTOKIES. 

It often happens that farms and herds are so located in respect to the 
factory that long distances over rough and hilly roads have to be traveled by 
patrons, making the delivery of milk difficult and expensive. In such cases 
the plan of branch factories has been found convenient and practical in their 
working. In this plan a large central building is provided, where the cheese 
is stored, and small, cheap structures are erected at different points over the 
country, simply for the manufacture of cheese which is carried to the central 
building to be stored and cured. One of the largest central establishments on 
the branch factory system is located at Ingersoll, Canada (Fig. ] 6). This fac- 
tory is noted for having made a cheese Aveighing some seven thousand pounds, 
the largest cheese that has ever been manufactured. It was six feet ten 
inches in diameter, three feet in hight, and twenty-one feet in circumfer- 
ence. To make it, thirty-five tons of milk were required, or one milking of 
seven thousand cows. It was bandaged with wire cloth, and its shape was 
in every respect perfect. 

To transport this immense cheese (Fig. 18) to the railroads from place to 
place, a very heavy wagon was specially manufactured for it. Then the hoop in 
which it was pressed was placed upon the mammoth, and the ends inclosed with 
heavy plank above and below, held in place by rods of iron firmly secured 
with nuts. It is not very probable that an attempt will very soon, if ever, 
be made " in the cheese line " to " outdo " this Canadian mammoth, and as a 
matter of history connected with large cheeses, we give" an illustration of the 
monster as it appeared at the ISTew York State Fair at Saratoga, and in the 
streets of London and other cities of England, on its way to the place of 
exhibition. 

In making very large cheeses, unless due caution be taken, there will be 
difficulty in expelling the whey, and if the whey is not properly expelled 
under the press, or otherwise, the cheese will be sure to turn off bad flavor. 
Several very large cheeses have been spoiled by not attending to this 



378 



Practical Daiey Husbandry. 




Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



379 



particular. The method adopted at the Ingersoll factory, and one which proved 
to be successful, was to divide the curds into small parcels — say from fifty to 
seventy pounds — and press thoroughly in hoops. Then after the whey had 
been expelled, the cheeses were broken up and passed through a curd-mill, 
and after being thoroughly mingled together were placed in the large hoop, 
where the curd assumed the proper shape under a powerful pressure. 

Mr. Lemuel Beown', who first suggested this plan and put it in success- 
ful operation, thus describes the advantages of the system. He says : — " In 
regard to the question of branch cheese factories, I will state that, for the 
last four years, I have been in business which led me from one factory to 
another, throiigh the principal dairy region of this State. In taking this 
broad view of the factory system, I have seen certain objections, which, if 



DISTANCE 300F/ 




DRYING HOUSE 
36 X 60 




2^X32 





0, I- ICI£ 
l'tX2Z 



Fia IT. — Ground Plan op Ingeesoll Eactoet. 



carried out, would soon cripple it in its infancy. The first and greatest 
objection is the expense and trouble of carrying milk long distances. I 
therefore introduced and put into practical operation, two years ago, and to a 
greater extent one year ago, the plan of working the milk at diflferent points, 
and drawing the cheese together instead of drawing the milk. For this pur- 
pose I erected cheap buildings, some eighteen by twenty-four feet, furnishing 
them with all the apparatus and conveniences of a nice factory, with ranges 
to hold ten or fifteen cheeses, or a load, which were boxed and drawn to the 
dry-house. I prepared the rennet, annatto and bandages at the dry-house, 
sending the required amount to the branches when the team went after the 
cheese. I have closely followed up the experiment for the last two seasons, 
and found the plan to work admirably, even beyond my expectations. The 
advantages are greater and the objections less than I expected. The first 
advantage is, that it gets a large amount of cheese together by drawing the 



380 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



1 



Ji 

I 



milk but a short distance ; and there is not only a saving in distance, but, as 
there are but few teams to deliver at one of these branches, the patron caiL 
drive up and unload at almost any moment, thus saving much time from thai 
disadvantage of waiting his turn at a large factory. Another advantage is 
that as the milk is draw^n but a short distance, it is delivered earlier in the 
day and in better condition — two considerations Avhich will be appreciated by 
all practical cheese-makers. In many instances, when milk comes in a bad 
condition, had it been delivered an hour or an hour and a-half sooner, it 
would have caused no difficulty in its manufacture. As it will be admitted 
by all that the quality of the milk has much to do in determining the charac- 
ter of the cheese, these facts will argue a.superior dairy in favor of the branch 
system, to say nothing of the increased amount of the product. 

" The third advantage is the facility with which the patron can obtain hi_ 
share of the whey, having to draw it but a short distance on his return home 
from carrying his milk. In brief, the branch system secures to the farmer 
all the advantages of a large factory in his own neighborhood. 

" ^y giving the farmers 
these advantages and con- 
veniences, I think the per- 
manency of the factory sys- 
tem will be established ; 
but as I am led to believe 
that the day of drawing 
milk long distances is nearly 
over, it is my opinion that, 
unless the branch system is 
adopted, the large factories 
will break up into smaller 
ones, which will fail to be 
sufficiently profitable t o 
stimulate individual enter- 
prise. They will then be 
built by a few farmers in convenient localities, and managed to save expense, 
much like the old private dairies. As they have learned something from 
the present factory system, they will undoubtedly make better cheese than 
of old ; but there will be an end to all that progress in cheese manufacture, 
which has within the last few years, given American cheese the first place in 
the world's market. Indeed, the quality of American cheese will be gene- 
rally lowered ; for, while few excel or equal the present standard, many will 
tall below It, from lack of that interest which is felt by the individual who 
makes cheese-making not only his business, but his study. 

"As to the manufacture of cheese in branch factories, they can be so 
placed as to get the milk from two to three hundred cows into a single vat, 
which can be worked by one hand without any additional help. I hired a 




Fio. 18. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 381 

hand the past season, who ran a branch with two hundred and thirty-six 
cows, without receiving tlie least assistance from any source. 

" As the help has but one A-at to watch, the work can always be done 
in season. Not so in the large factory, with a conbination of vats ; for in 
case two or more vats need dipping at the same time, which is often the case, 
one of them is obliged to wait, to its injury. 

"These considerations argue two points against large factories, and in 
favor of the branch system : 

" 1. The milk will be delivered at the branch earlier and in better condition. 

" 2. The Avork can always be done at the branch in the proper time. 

" One objection brought against this system by many is, that there will 
be as many kinds of cheese as there are places of manufacture. My expe- 
rience does not sustain this objection. Distance has nothing to do with the 
result. If the same rennet and annatto are used, and the same rules are 
observed in the process of manufacture, what difference can it make whether 
the Tats are two feet or two miles apart ? The conditions being the same, I 
see no reason why the result would not be the same. Facts and observations 
show that it is. During the past season I visited a large number of factories, 
and nowhere did I find a more uniform lot of cheese than was produced 
under the branch system. 

" As regards the amount of help, I think a dairy of one thousand cows 
could be manufactured nearly as cheaply at four branches, with two hundred 
and fifty cows each, as if the milk were all delivered in one place. I am now 
speaking simply of making. The additional expense and trouble would be 
in drawing the cheese together. Still this is less than the extra expense and 
trouble of drawing the milk long distances. There is not only more weight, 
but the milk has to be delivered in season, whatever may be the weather, 
while the cheese can be left over in case of bad weather or hurry. 

" When the milk is all drawn to one large establishment, the entire care 
is commonly thrown upon one person, the rest feeling little or no responsi- 
bility, and not working with the interest required in the successful perform- 
ance of such delicate business. But when the milk is worked by the branch 
system, the care is divided, and not only a feeling of responsibility, but a 
spirit of rivalry is awakened. Consequently, the labor is more carefully and 
thoroughly performed. 

" Another objection raised against the branch system is, that it will require 
all experienced hands. But, as the milk comes in better season and condition, 
and there is only one vat to watch, with the rennet and annatto prepared and 
furnished ready for use, it will readily be seen that, with frequent visits from 
the overseer, it will not require as much experience and skill as it would to 
manage a large factory. I have found no trouble with hands of little expe- 
rience. In one case I hired a hand who was totally unacquainted with cheese- 
making, and he ran a branch through the season with the best of success. 
There is an effort among the hands to excel each other, and should any of 



382 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

them have bad luck, as each branch has its own mark, the svii^erintendent will 
readily detect it, when a visit to the branch will enable him to soon put 
everything right. 

" Farmers at a distance would generally choose to pay for drawing their 
milk, rather tliau to draw it themselves. But if a branch were erected in 
their neighborhood, the general opinion is that each would rather draw 
his own milk than to be obliged to get it ready for the milk-wagon at just 
such a minute every night and morning. Admitting this to be so, the branch 
system would save to many the sura paid for drawing their milk to a large 
factory— it, on an average, costing |2.50 per cow. Allowing it to cost twenty- 
five cents per hundred pounds more to work up milk under this plan ; then, 
as a cow will make four hundred pounds, which would make the additional 
expense one dollar per cow, the saving to the farmer would be one dollar and 
a-half on each cow— which, with other advantages' mentioned, would throw 
the argument in favor of the branch system. 

" In conclusion, I will say to those who are about to build, unless you 
adopt the branch system, do not build too large. I have been on the road for 
the last three months, and have exchanged views on this point with a large 
number of manufacturers. It is the prevailing opinion that the day of draw- 
ing milk long distances is rapidly coming to a close. From a mile and a-half 
to two miles is as far as it will be found feasible to draw it. This, as a gene- 
ral thing, will get together the milk of from two to three hundred cows." 

CHEESE-MAKING MACHINEET. 

In cheese factory machinery, the first thing naturally to be considered is 
the heater and vat. There are a great variety of heaters— the steam boiler, 
boiler and engine, tanks for hot water, cheese vats with heater underneath,. 
&c., &c. There are so many kinds of apparatus, some of which are not now 
to be recommended, that I shall only name those of recent invention, or 
those which have been generally approved. The engine and boiler has been 
in use, more or less, from the first introduction of factory cheese-making. 
Some old cheese-makers are very much prejudiced in favor of steam in cheese 
factories, and where an engine can be utilized to do other work besides sup- 
plying heat to the vats, this form of heater is very desirable. Among the 
new things recently brought out is 

CLAEK's sectional BOILEE and STEAM GENEEATOE, 

an illustration of which (Fig. 19) we give in this connection. It is con- 
structed^ of a series of sections of solid, heavy cast iron cylindrical hollow 
rings, with lathe-turned faces, bolted together vertically, one upon another, 
with water passages or openings communicating througli the series, and 
made water and steam tight by thin rubber packing around each opening. 
The lower sections, forming the ash pit and combustion chamber, are plain 
hollow cylinders ; the others are constructed with corrugated and chambered 
projections inside for water, and for increasing the heating surfaces exposed 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



383 



to the fire. The number of sections may be indefinitely increased to utilize 
all the available heat from the fire. The small vertical spaces between the 
corrugations form the smoke and heating flues, while the larger central space 
is lined with heavy sheet iron, and forms the coal magazine, thus making at 
once a perpetual base-burner and self-feeding machine of the most apjjroved 
shape known. The magazine is filled through a door and shute in the dome- 
shaped smoke top, and holds sufiicient supply for its full capacity for about 




Figure 19. 

eight hours, or for simply heating and cooking purposes for sixteen to 
twenty-four hours. For wood fuel, an additional plain section, with feeding 
door in the combustion chamber, is used. They are recommended as entirely 
safe from exj^losions, and cannot be ruptured with a pressure of two hundred 
pounds or less to the square inch, and all are practically tested under that 
force at the manufactory. See view of sections (Fig. 20). They remain 
entirely free from incrustations or scale from hard or lime water, as the feed 
water enters just below the grate, and as the temperature gradually reaches 
to about 190° F. (which is far below boiling point), the lime is precipitated 
to the mud ring around the ash pit, where it remains undisturbed mud until 
blown ofi" at the waste cock, or removed at convenience ; as this deposition 
occurs before the lime and muddy water 
reaches the corrugated and chambered 
sections, they consequently do not be- 
come clogged or choked by lime or mud. 
They can be readily taken all apart for 
handling, transportation, re-packing or 
other purposes, and put together again by two men, in less than two 
hours' time. 

Mr. Horace L. Emery of Albany, who has had considerable experience 
with engines and boilers, and whose opinion I have asked concerning the 




FlGUEE 20. 



384 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



merits of this invention, writes me as follows : — " It is my belief that, as a 
steam generator — for safety, economy in space occupied, fuel and attention, 
and, I believe, durability, and most of all, efficiency — it has no superior, 
whether for heating, cooking or power pui-poses. When to it is applied the 
non-conductor covering of plastic felting, called Salamander Felting, from 
our neighboring city, Troy, I think it the safest from fire and frost of all 




Figure 21. 



Figure 32. 



inventions. I am putting the machine you saw into my liouse, in place of 
the portable hot-air furnace, which last is now worn or burned out beyond 
repairs, having been in the place twelve to fifteen years, and, as arranged, is 
as good a pattern as any in use in Albany ; still I prefer to use steam, for 
the reasons that it is perfectly controllable in temperature, under difierent 
l^ressures, while its fire is controllable by its diaphragm automatic damper. 



Fr ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 385 

below the grate. I shall use four hundred feet of one-inch caliber iron pipe 
in my heating air chamber, through which the air circulation passes, precisely 
as with the hot-air furnace, and use all the air-pipes and registers, precisely 
as they are and have been for the hot-air furnace, making no change. The 
hot or pipe chamber will be made of wood, and lined with a thick coating 
of the non-conductor felting, for economy in cost, safety, and to prevent 
absorption or radiation of heat. To this I have also attached a positive 
automatic water feed, so that while the heating air for the house does not 
consume or waste any water, still by drawing hot water through the house, 
on all four floors, as well as for washing purposes, &c., &c., the self-feed 
supply will maintain the water flow to its line all the time. I am operating 
it now, all mounted, at our works, and am pleased Avith its performance. 
For cheese dairies I am confident it is preferable to anything I have seen. 
I think the iSTo. 3 size would prove more desirable, as its capacity is double ; 
while for a given amount of work with the No. 2, it is quite as economical 
in its fuel item." 

VEKTICAL ENGINE AND BOILEE. 

Mr. Emery sends me the following brief description of the vertical 
engine and boiler (see Figs. 21 and 22), which are adapted to factory use : 
" The boilers are of the upright tubular style, with internal fire box, are made 
of the best material and workmanship, and are all tested to one hundred and 
fifty pounds pressure j^er inch. The heating surface and area of grate are in 
excess of the quantities usually allowed for the same power, and it is there- 
fore unnecessary to purchase a greater rated power than that required for 
actual use ; while in cases of emergency these boilers can be depended upon 
for much more than their rated power. The engine is not fastened to or 
upon the boiler, and is, thei'efore, not affected by the expansion, nor are the 
bearings over-heated by conduction, or the ascending heat from the boiler. 
The fly-wheel, being at the base, secures steadiness under the high speed 
which is necessary for economy of fuel. Being attached to one base, the 
combined engine and boiler is easily transported, occupies little space, and 
may be very readily mounted ujjon wheels, rendering it peculiarly adapted 
for agricultural purposes." 

ANOTHER NEW BOILER AND ENGINE. 

Messrs. Jones and Faulkner of Utica, N. Y., have also within the past 
year 1870 brought out a boiler and engine, which appears to be well adapted 
to cheese factories. We give (Fig. 23) an illustration of the boiler, &c., as 
applied to the common factory vat. 

AUTOMATIC heater AND CHEESE YAT. 

Of the recent inventions in this class of heaters, that of Messrs. Whitiman 
and BuRRELL of Little Falls, IST. Y , deserves attention. It is very much 
liked by those who have given it a trial, and is meeting with success. The 
subjoined cut (Fig. 24) and description will explain its operation. 
25 



386 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



The lieater consists of a metallic vat or pan, Y, for holding water, with a 
series of flues, C C, running thi'ough it, carrying the smoke and heated air 
from the chamber, B, at the back end of the fire box, into the chamber, G, at 
the foot of the smoke pipe H. The chamber, G, is directly over the front of 
the fire box, J, and is connected with it only as the common termination of 
the flues, C. The bottom is of iron, and being directly over the fire the heat 




Figure HZ. 

rarefies the smoke and air in the chamber, and increases the draft through the 
smoke pipes. In front of the chamber, G, are slides on doors, I, which admit 
of cleaning the smoke flues, C C. The pan, Y, is supported over the fire box, 
Z, by parallel metallic pipes, which receive a supply of water from the foun- 
tain or spring through the pipe, E, and discharge it through the pipe into the 




pan at, A, in a partly heated state (not hot enough to precipitate lime, but 
about milk warm) ; and as, generally, water is running through the pipe, no 
sediment can lodge in it. When very hot water is used the pipes are dis- 
pensed with, as they are not important. The supply pipe, when it empties 
into the pan, is furnished with a T, at A, having the end entering the pan, Y, 
an inch or more lower than the other end, thus making a self-regulating 



Practical Daihy IIusdaxdey. 387 

suj)ply to the pan, wliicb, so long as the water is permitted to run, is always 
evenly full, for as soon as the water in the pan becomes as high as the outer 
end of the T, the water will waste instead of running into the pan. Plot 
water runs from the pan, Y, through the pipe, L, into the base of the milk 
vat, and is conducted by a set of pipes through the water, under the milk. 
The heated water under the tin milk vat, as it grows cooler, is returned 
through the pipe, U, F, to be re-heated in the pan, Y. A constant circulation 
may be thus kept up, through both heater and milk vat, on any number of 
vats. The outlet from the j)an, Y, into the i^ipe, L, is on a level with a 
point to which the water is to be raised about the milk vat, while the inlet to 
the pan, Y, through pipe, U, F, is on a level with the bottom of the milk 
vats. The supply of Avater and circulation is regulated by faucet's. The size 
of heater is three and a-half feet by five and a-half feet. There are five flues, 
C C, each three and a-half inches in diameter. The pan is made from very 
thick heavy English galvanized wrought iron, ISTo. 17. 

Advantages. — 1st. By means of the return smoke flues, C C, the heat is 
all utilized, thus saving one-half the fuel, while the very large heating surface 
(more than twice the bottom of the pan) makes the water boiling hot sur- 
prisingly quick. 2d. The " draft " to the fire, in the fire box, is increased 
very much by re-heating the smoke after it reaches the chamber, G. 3d. The 
saving of water as set forth. 4th. Its durability — made of extra heavy gal- 
vanized wrought iron, it will last a long time, and is easily repaired by any 
tinsmith if it gets out of order. 5 th. Hot water is coming to be regarded by 
many manufacturers as the best heating agent that can be used in making 
cheese. 6th. This ajDparatus can be furnished cheaply, and as the jDrice of a 
milk vat is also $100, the heater with, say two six hundred gallon milk vats, 
costs but |300 ; and with three milk vats, |400. 

THE CHEESE VAT OR MILK VAT. 

consists of a water-tight metallic reservoir or pan, A, sustained at the top by 
the wooden rim, V, and set just within a wooden vat, W, also water tight. 
The metallic vat is supported at the bottom by wooden strips, P, running 
transversely, which are retained in place by longitudinal strips, 0. Hot 
Avater is supplied from the heater and, after entering the outer or wooden 
vat, W, at M, it is divided into two streams, which, after traversing the whole 
length of the vat through the pipes, M, are discharged into the wooden vat near 
its place of entrance. The water circulates freely around the metallic pan, 
and may be kept in constant circulation between the milk vat and heater 
through the outlet, S, which connect with the heater by the pipe, U, F ; or 
the water may be withdrawn entirely from the milk vat by a waste pipe at 
the end of the vat. The discharge of the curd and whey into the cheese sink 
through the opening, R, may be facilitated by tipping down the cheese vat 
by turning over the lever, T, thus shortening two legs and rocking the vat 
upon two middle legs. 



388 



Practical Dairy Husbakdry. 



Advantages. — 1st. The metallic vat is made of five cross tin, large sheets, 
so there are but three seams in bottom and two seams in sides, thus making 
it much more durable and easier to clean, as there are but few seams. 2d. 
The bottom of the wooden vat is made of but two plank, the same beino- of 
best clear pine lumber, each two inches thick, twenty-two inches wide, and 
fifteen feet long; five heavy bolts, with nuts on ends of same, running 
through the legs across the bottom and ends of vat, so that if the vats shrink 
or swell it can be regulated easily. 3d. The discharge curd and whey gate, 
R, is five inches by six inches ; and when the " drop floor " is put in factories 
it is of great use in drawing oflT the curd into the sink. Vat, with dip con- 
nections, $100; vat, with discharge curd gate, $110. 

OLD STYLE " SELF-HEATEES." 

Of the heaters directly beneath the cheese-vat, sometimes called " self- 
heaters," the Roe vat and heater, the O Neil vat and heater, and the Cooper 
vat and heater, are all similar in principle and all resemble each other. They 
were at one time quite popular among fixrm dairies at tlie West, and have 
been applied to factory vats for some years. We give a cut of an apparatus 
of this description, manufactured at Watertown, N. Y. 

The illustration (Fig. 25), shows 
the inner or tin vat raised. Beneath 
the wooden vat is the double iron 
cylinder, the space between the two 
parts being for water and the fire-box 
in the center. It will be readily 
understood from the figure represent- 
^^^^^^i ing it. 

ANOTHER FORM OF HEATER UNDER 
THE VAT. 

The Oneida vat and heater (Fig. 
FiGUEE 25. 26), invented by Wm. Ralph of TJtica, 

has long been in use, and has always held a prominent position among this class 
of apparatus, on account of its economy in the use of fuel and its even distri- 
bution of heat. 

Figure 26 shows a very correct representation of the external appear- 
ance of an apparatus that is quite extensively in use in cheese-factories 
and dairies throughout the country. It consists of an inner vat of heavy 
tin plate, with a frame of wood about the top, and is furnished with a gradu- 
ated scale attached to the side, for ascertaining the amount of milk that may 
be contained, which may also be a guide for determining the proper amount 
of rennet and salt. The tin vat sets inside of an outer vat of wood, usually 
lined with galvanized sheet-iron or copper. Between these vats, at the sides, 
ends and bottom, is a space for water for cooling the milk, which is run in 




Practical Dairy IIusba?,'dry. 389 

• 

through a funnel or ho^^per at one end, and discharged through gates or 
faucets at the opposite end. Water 
is also used to communicate heat to 
the inner vat, and is heated by a fire 
made in the heater, which is a copper 
cylinder of the length of the vat, 
situated in a recess underneath the 
vat, the recess being something more 
than a half cylinder in form, with its 
opening coramunicatingwith thewater 
chamber between the vats ; the water 
flows aroiind the heater and through 
the opening at its top, the entire 
length of the \zi. The heater and 
recess is equal to about one-third the 
width of the outer A'at. Over the 
heater, in tlie water space between 
the vats, is placed a platform of thin 
boards, movable, but held in place by 
suitable fastenings, upon the upper 
and under side of which are cleats for 
the support of the inner A^at, between 
which the water flows from the heater, 
first around the sides and ends, then 
under the bottom of the inner vat, 
thence through pipes to the bottom 
of the heater. This platform or dia- 
phragm is technically called the " equal- 
izer," the ofiice of which is to prevent 
the currents of warm water from 
striking the bottom of the inner vat 
till after they have been in contact 
with the sides and ends, and given off 
a portion of their heat, causing an 
even Avarming of the milk and cooking 
of the curd, with a coraj)aratively 
small amount of agitation. 

At one end of the heating cylinder 
is a fire-door, damper and hearth. At 
the other end is attached the smoke- 
pipe; a whey strainer, siphon, or 
whey gate and heat stopper complete 
the arrangement. 

The construction and operation of 
the vat, and direction of the currents 
of water in heating, will be readily understood by the diagram shown in 




390 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



figure 27 of a cross section of the same: A, is the inner vat; B, outer vat; 
C, heating cylinder; D, case or jacket forming the recess in which the heater 
is situated ; E, the equalizer ; F, F, are pipes for returning water to the 
heater after having given off its heat. The arroAvs indicate the course of the 
currents of water from the heater to the tin vat, and their return through the 
pipes F, F, to the water. 

It will be seen that as the recess containing the heater is opened at the 
top the whole length of the vat, there is entire freedom of circulation of the 
warm water, — a space of one and a-half inches at the sides and ends of the 
equalizer being left clear for the purpose — the Avater is put in motion and 
conveys the heat to the inner vat as fast as it receives the same ; as a conse- 
quence, the water is but a few degrees higher in temperature at the time 

being than the milk or curds in 
the vat ; it is claimed, therefore, 
that by the application and 
retention of so low a tempera- 
ture, a larger proportionate 
amount of cheese from a given 
amount of milk may be obtained 
than where a higher heat is 
brought in contact Avith the 
milk vat ; that all the butter in 
the milk is retained in the 
cheese, and that the apparatus 
requires a compai-atively small 
amount of labor or fuel ; heats 
FiGTiRE 27. with uniformity ;* never forms 

hard water scale on the heater ; is simple and safe, and being complete in 
itself, involves no expense in setting up. 

millae's cieculating coil heater akd cheese vat. 

This is another form of heater economical of fuel, the general appearance 
of Avhich, Avith its connections, is represented at Figure 28. It is constructed 
on the circulating principle, by means of which A'ery little water is required 
to be heated besides that contained in the vats themselves. It has been 
thoroughly tested for four or five seasons, and is now in use in a large number 
of cheese factories. A representation of the heater and Avater tank fitted to 
accompany it as shown at Figure 29. 

The heater is constructed separately from the vat, and consists of Avrought- 
iron pipes, screwed together in such a manner as to form a fire chamber, and 
present a large amount of heating surface directly exposed to the action of 
the fire. This coil of pipes is inclosed in brick-work, Avhich prevents loss of 
heat. A pan or tank, rests on the top of this brick-work, and is connected 
to the coil in such a manner as to form a perfect circulation ; so that Avhen 




Practical Dairy Husbandrt. 



391 



this tank is filled with Avater and a fire started, the water is warmed very 
rapidly. A flue is formed underneath the bottom of this tank so that it 
receives the lieat from the fire 
after it has passed the coil. 
Figure 30 shows a view of the 
arrangement of the heating 
pipes of the vat. The coil is 
also connected with the vat 
and forms with that a perfect 
circulation. The upper pipe, 
the one that supplies the heat 
to the vat, branches off, and 
two smaller pipes are connected 
to it, and these extend through 
the space between the tin and 
wooden vats, and are perfo- 
rated so as to distribute the 
heat equally. The lower pij^e, 
the one that supplies the coil 
with water from the vat, is 
attached directly to the bottom 
of the wooden vat. Proper 
stop-cocks are attached, so that 
the heat from the coil can be 
turned on or shut off from 
either the tank or vat at plea- 
sure. A safety pipe is attached 
to the cold water, or lower 
pipe of the coil, which allows 
the water and steam to escape 
into the tank, to prevent all 
danger of exploding, in case 
all the stop-cocks should be 
negligently closed at once. 

A most convenient and sim- 
ple arrangement for tipping the 
vat is attached, by means of 
which it can be tipped or 
righted again very easily, and 
without requiring any great 
outlay of strength. 

THE OPEEATIOiSr OF THE APPARATUS. 

The tank is filled with water, a fire started in the chamber formed by the 
coil of pipes, and the water in the tank is first warmed ; the stop-cocks that 




392 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



connect it to the coil being open, while those to the vat are closed, thus 
forming a circulation with the tank only. After this water is warm, and 
when the milk has been placed in the tin vat, the stop-cock to the vat is 
opened, and the warm water immediately passes from the tank, filling the 
space between the tin and wooden vats. When filled, the stop-cocks to the 
tank are closed, leaving the coil in connection with the vat only. The heat- 




FlGTTBE 29. 

ing of the vat then immediately commences. The water passes from the vat, 
througli the lower pipe, and circulates slowly through the coil, becoming 
gradually heated, returns to the vat through the perforated pipes, and by 
them the heat is most evenly distributed. The same circuit is continued until 
the proper temperature is reached, when the stop-cock to the vat should be 
closed. This at once cuts oflT the circulation, and prevents a further rise in 
temperature. When the heat is shut off from the vat, the stop-cocks to the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



393 



tank should be at once opened, and the tank, having been refilled with cold 
water, receives the lieat from the coil until the vat is ready to be warmed 
again, as it also receives the heat from the fire after it has j^assed the coil, by 
means of the flue imderneath it. A supply of hot water is constantly on 
hand for any purpose, without using extra fuel. 




FlQURE 30. 

POSITIONS OP HEATER AND VATS. 



This apparatus is convenient to arrange for factory purposes. The heater 
can be placed in almost any position to suit the room. This will be readily 
understood from the plans at Fig. 31. Plan 1st shows vats connected to a 
right-hand heater ; Plan 2d shows vats connected to a left-hand heater ; and 




Peed Boor Tet,d.I>Qor 

Figure 31.— Plan 1. Figuee 31.— Plan 2. 

Plan 3d shows vats connected to a heater placed in front of them, which can 
be either right or left. The feed-door can be placed at either end of heater. 
Many other advantages are claimed for this apparatus besides those previ- 
ously mentioned, but the following is the most important, viz., the manner 
of applying the heat. The heating pipes, or those that distribute the hot 
water in the vat, enter and extend through the vat, on each side of the tin 



394 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 



milk holder, thus clifFasing the heated water equally along the sides of it. 
The lower or cold water pipe is attached to the bottom of the vat, and as 
through this pipe the water is continually passing out to the coil, the warmer 
water is gradually drawn under the tin vat ; thus the 
bottom is at no time but a little warmer than the 
milk or curd inside, while the majority of the heat 
is transmitted through the sides of the tin vat. 
This is at all times a great desideratum, but especially 
in the operation of " cooking the curd," as the curd, 
after it is cut, settles to the bottom. In this appa- 
ratus the majority of the heat is imparted to the 
curd by means of the whey, which receives its 
heat from the sides of the vat; at the same time 
sufficient heat is imparted to the curd that lays on 
the bottom to keep it of an equal temperature with 
the rest. 

These heaters (Fig. 32) are made in a portable 
form ; they are constructed on the same principle as 
the stationary apparatus, except that they are porta- Figfee 31— Plan a 

ble ; their position can be changed at any time. The heater is inclosed in a 
cast-iron stove, instead of brick work. In the two smallest sizes this stove 
is lined with fire brick, to prevent loss of heat by radiation into the room. 





FiGmtB 



The two largest sizes have a lining of common brick work, laid up on the 
the inside of the castings, for the same purpose. They require but a small 
amount of fuel, burn either wood or soft coal, and can be used for many 



Practical Uairy Husbandry. 



395 



other purposes besides cheese-making. They are especially useful for steam- 
ing and cooking feed for stock. When arranged for this purpose, the o-eneral 




construction of the heater is the same. The only difference is that a check- 
valve (see Fig. 33) is substituted for the lower stop-cock to the tank, and 



396 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



the pipe furnishing the hot water or steam, instead of extending out hori- 
zontally, is carried up perpendicularly, and a steam separator is attached, to 
which the steam pipes are connected. The principle of its operation is this : 
When the stop-cock in the upper pipe is open, the water in the tank circu- 




FlGURE 34. 

lates through the coil, and is heated in the same manner as in the cheese vat 
heaters ; but when steam is desired this stop-cock is closed, the return of the 
water to the tank is thus cut off, and it remains in the heater until steam is 





Figure 35. 

generated, when the mixed steam and water are driven up into the separator ; 
the water, beimg separated, runs back into the tank, and the steam passes off 
through the pipes to the desired points. This will continue as long as the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



397 



stop-cock is open. During this operation, the coil is fed with water from the 
tank, through the lower pipe. 

"We give also in this connection an illustration of the vat and heater for 
farm dairies, called the Oneida Farm Vat (see Fig. 34.) 



enders 

dinary 



PAOTOKY MILK CANS. 

These cans are constructed with a conical bottom (Fig. 35), which r 
them very durable and strong, and does not add anything to the or 
weight of the can. A solid tinned 
or galvanized iron band, with a 
projecting lip for the support of 
the can, encloses this bottom, at- 
tached by soldering. This ren- 
ders it durable. We also give a 
cut of the Iron Clad milk can, 
(Fig. 36), which is stoutly made. 

MILK CAN" HANDLES. 

These handles (Figs. 37 and 
38) are made especially for com- 
bining a convenient handle for 
carrying or lifting a cheese fac- 
tory carrying can, with another 
for the purpose of dumping or 
tipping it when a crane is used. 
Tliey are made so as to embrace 
or inclose the band, which is 
usually placed near the center 
of the can, thus attaching them 
to the strongest and stiffest part 
of the can. The new pattern 
(Fig. 37) is adapted to either the 
ordinary hooks, or the straight 
or squarely bent hooks or tongs 
used in some localities, which re- 
quire a hole or socket to fit them. 
The old pattern (Fig. 38) is only 
adapted to the ordinary lifting hooks. Another form of can handle is shown 
at Fig. 39. It consists of a broad, malleable iron plate fitted to the curvature 
of the side of the can, for riveting thereto ; having a flanged socket and knob, 
also a hinged handle for lifting by hand ; which handle, when not in use, 
drops to the side of the can. This arrangement is adapted for hoisting and 
tipping the can, to empty from the top, to any and every device used for the 
purpose ; whether hinged bail with hooks to fit the socket, common hook or 
simple ring, fitting the outside of the barrel, neither of which can slip or 




Figure 36. 



398 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



unhook, and either of which will allow a complete revolution of the can. 
The plate tends to strengthen and protect the can while being hoisted. The 
projection of the socket and knob being bnt three-quarters of an inch outside 
of the handle, it is not liable to be broken or to jam surrounding cans while 





FiGUEE 37. Figure 38. Figure 39. 

being carried. The handles represented at Figs. 40 and 41 are designed to 
be used on the Iron Clad can (Fig. 36). 

FACTORY WEIGHING CAN. 

The cut (Fig. 42) represents a tin weighing can for receiving the milk as 
it is brought to the factory. This can stands on the scales, and each patron's 





Figure 40— Cover Handle. Figure 41— Side Handm;. 

milk is emptied into it, weighed, and then allowed to run to the vats. The 
bottom is made to incline to the faucet or gate, which is extra large, generally 
about three inches in diameter, so that it is emptied very rapidly. A con- 
ductor head (shown in Fig. 43) is placed in front of the faucet to prevent the 
milk from spattering and to conduct it to the vats. The tube or pipe on the 
end can be extended to any required length, though if more than three or 
four feet long, it should be an open trough. Fig. 44 shows an extra strong, 
large, weigh-can gate, having guides to steady and regulate the handle. 



Practical Dairy Husbandrf. 



399 



CHEESE PRESSES. 

One of the most convenient j^resses for farm dairies is tlie Oyston's Her- 
kimer County Press, illustrated in Fig. 45. 

Description. — Between the upper beams of the stout wooden frame two 
sectors, E E, are hung by wrought iron journals in iron boxes inserted in the 
beams. One of these sectors is geared on the inside and the other on the 
outside. They are operated by a pinion, the shaft of which passes through 




FiGUBE 42. Figure 43. 

the front beam, and on which the ratchet wheel, F, is fastened. Next to the 
ratchet the end of the lever, G, plays loosely, and then the crank is secured 
with a pin, which also keeps the lever in its place. The pitmen, or toggle 
levers, I) D, are four in number ; their upper ends are secured on wrought-iron 
journals, cast solid in the sectors, and their bottom ends are pivoted to the 
follower, and work in iron boxes. The follower, A, slides up and down 
between the posts, and is kept perfectly steady. To operate the press the 
lever, G, is raised and a dog at the back of the 
lever, which plays on a strong pivot, is hooked on 
to a pin in the beam and holds the lever up. The 
dog, H, is then turned back so that its other end 
shall take into the ratchet below the center ; the 
sectors, follower, &c., are then run iip with the 
crank and held up by the dog, H ; the cheese is 
then put in, the dog, H, turned to the position 
as now represented; the lever is then raised, which unhooks the lever 
dog and allows it to take into the rachet. Then press the lever down, or 
hang a weight and leave it as you please. The follower and sectors are rep- 
resented about halfway down; the journals on which the strain comes move 
but one-quarter of a revolution as at each operation of pressing, which con- 
sumes little power and produces little wear, Avhile the pinion makes over 
three revolutions, which gives the end of the lever a traverse of over eighty- 
six feet. 




FlGTIEB 44. 



400 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



FACTORY PRESSES. 

The presses at the factories (Fig. 46) are generally quite similar in con- 
struction, and, except the iron screw and its fittings, are usually made upon 
the spot by some carpenter. These presses are not patented, and are so 




FiGUKE 45. 

simple in construction that any one handy with tools can do the wood work 
for less money than their cost of transportation over long distances. The 
wooden frames should be made of well seasoned timber, and the parts of 
sufficient size to be strong, so as not to spring or warp. The sills for holding 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



401 



tlie hoops are about fifteen inches Avide and four inches thick, and the beams 
ten inches by six inches thick. The posts are of the same tliickness, and of 
the width of the sill at the bottom, slanting to the width of the beam at the 
top. The posts should be about four feet ten inches long. The sill and beam 
are let into the posts say about a half to three-quarters of an inch. The sills 
stand about tAvp feet from the floor, and the beams are about two feet five 
inches above the sills. The posts are set about two feet apart, which gives a 
space of two feet by two feet five inches for the hoop. Iron rods with nut and 
screw for the ends are used for holding the Avood Avork firmly in place, and 
six or eight frames or presses may 
be connected together. Fig. 46 
gives their general appearance. 

CHEESE PRESS SCEBAVS. 

"While for private dairies lever 
presses are still used to some ex- 
tent, the scrcAV jDresscs have been 
universally adopted by cheese fac- 
torymen. The screAvs are usually 
placed in benches of six or eight. 
These benches, as Ave haA^e re- 
marked, are made very strong, 
fiom heavy timber, Avith bolts, to 
hold them from spreading, betAveen 
each screw. The ordinary screAV 
has tAvo holes diilled in its hub, 
and is turned by means of a round 
iron bar. Ratchet screAVS are much 
more convenient, but, as usually 
made, are very objectionable, on Figuee 46- 

account of their complication, thereby allowing the collection of whey 
and dirt, causing them to rust and smell badly ; they are also con- 
stantly getting out of order. Thj illustrations (Figs. 47 and 48) show an 
improved Ratchet Cheese Press ScrcAA^, Avhich is said to entirely overcome 
these objections. The scrcAv is thus constructed : A toothed or ratchet 
Avheel is firmly attached to the scrcAV, leaving about an inch space betAveen 
the top of the flange and the loAver side of the wheel. A lever, to which is 
attached the pawl of the ratchet, is made to fit in this space, thus when 
attached completing the ratchet. But as this lever can be readily removed 
from or attached to the scrcAV, by merely pressing back the pawl, one lever 
can be made to answer for all screws in a fixctory. It Avill thus be seen that 
this arrangement combines all the advantages of the ordinary ratchet screw, 
with the simplicity, strength and cleanliness of the common plain screw. 
The pawl attached to the lever is made Avide enough to turn the ratchet 
26 




402 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

wheel, when placed either side up ; thus it can be readily adjusted to either 
raise or lower the screw. The screw, when relieved of pressure, can be 




Figure 47. Fisueb 48. 

rapidly raised or lowered, by means ol a malleable iron handle, made 
expressly for this purpose (see Fig. 49). The flange of this screw is made 
very heavy and strong, and has an extra deep socket, in which the lower end 





FlGUKB 49. FlSUEE 50. 

of the screw is carefully fitted, so that the flange cannot tip in the least, but 
will press the cheese true and even. Both the handle and lever of these 



Praciical Dairy Husbandry. 



403 



screws are gulvanized, wliich is quite important, as the salt and acid in the 
curd and whey will rust them badly. If the common screws are used, the 
iron bai's for running them should always be galvanized, for the same reasons. 
Another pattern of these screws (shown at Fig. 50) is simple in construc- 
tion, consisting of a screw of refined wrought iron, attached to and turning 
in a heavy cast base, also a heavy cast nut through which the screw works, 
for fastening into the beam of the j^ress. The screws are turned by means 
of a wrought iron bar inserted into holes in the collar of the screw. They 
are usually of two sizes — one and three-fourths inches and one and a-half 
inches in diameter. The one and three-fourths inch screw is in extreme 
length twenty inches ; has thirteen inches length of screw thread ; four holes 
in collar for inserting a seven-eighths inch bar, and a base nine inches in 
diameter. The one and a-half inch screw is in entire length eighteen inches ; 
length of screw thread, eleven and a-half inches ; four holes in collar for 
three-fourths inch bar, and eight inch diameter of base. The grade and 
pitch of screw are calculated for the most rapid motion compatible with 
strength, great power and ease of working. 



iiT^ 




Figure 51. 

feazer's ganvj cheese press. 
This press is constructed horizontally, and presses any given number of 
cheese, Avith a single ratchet screw set in movable head-blocks^ so as to repeat 
when run out its length. The cheeses are placed upon their edges in metallic 
hoops, made in sections, with heads or covers of the same material, not 
liable to shrink or swell, forming a complete box, the sections sliding 
together as the pressing is performed, finishing the cheese at one operation. 
The advantages claimed for it are : 1st. It saves the labor of one man, 
where a large number of cheese are made. 2d. It takes xip less than one- 
half the room of the old j^resses. 3d. The hoops are so constructed that the 
air and whey escape as soon as pressure is applied. This is an advantage 
not appreciated heretofore. 4th. The hoops also make a perfectly smooth, 
rounding edge. 5th. The clieese are pressed in bandage at once — no turning 
in press, nor particle of trimming. This alone saves much labor. 6th It 
wdll press any number of cheese as perfectly as one. 7th. It presses perfectly 



404 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



even, and cannot clo otherwise, if the press and hoops are made true. 8th. 
The pressing is so gradual, on a large number of cheese, that there is no 
curd forced off with the whey, as is the case with the single cheese press, 
.9th. The pressing is tmiform ; as one is pressed against the other, therefore 




Figure 52. 

all must 1)8 pressed exactly alike. 10th. A weight is attached to the lever 
to continue pressing, or indicate when manipulation is necessary. 11th. 
When the screw is reversed sufficiently to relieve one cheese, they will . all 
come out, saving much labor running screws up and down, as in the ordinary 
press. 12tb. The hoops are made in sections for bandaging and contracting, 

dispensing with all followers and bot- 



tom boards. Figs. 51 and 52 illus- 
trate these presses. 

CHEESE PRESS HOOPS. 

The hoops for pressing cheese 
were formerly, and are still, to a 
large extent, made from wood, but 
the last few seasons galvanized iron 
hoops (see Fig. 53) have been intro- 
duced to a great extent, and are bet- 

FlGUEE 53. . .L mi T 

ter on many accounts. They do not 
shrink or swell, absorb no whey, and the cheese slips out more readily. 

RUBBER PRESS RINGS. 

A source of considerable trouble and annoyance to cheese-makers is the 
shrinking and swelling of the cheese followers ; if they fit loosely, the curd 




Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



405 



will press up, thereby making it necessary to trim it off, thus causing a 
waste of cheese. Figs. 54 and 55 illustrate an invention designed to over- 
come this difficulty. Fig. 54 shows a cheese hoop cut in two perpendicularly. 
A, represents the cheese hoop ; B, the follower ; C, the cheese ; E and F, 
rubber washers or rings. One of these rubber rings (Fig. 55) is placed on 
the inside of the cheese hoop, resting on the press board below the curd or 
cheese. The other is placed above the cheese, directly under the follower. 





FlGUKB 54. 



FlQUKE 55. 



As soon as the pressure is applied, it causes the rubber rings to expand and 
fit tight to the hoops, preventing the curd from pressing either up around 
the follower or out underneath the bottom of the hoop. By using these 
rubber rings, the followers may fit the hoops very loosely. They are very 
valuable in using for the second pressing after the bandage has been put on ; 
the rings then prevent the bandage bursting at the edge, which has always 
been a great annoyance, as it allows the flies to get in, producing skippers 
in a place whence they can scarcely ever be gotten out. 




Figure 56. 



HOOPS AND WOODEN PEESS KINGS. 



Hoops and wooden press rings are usually made of staves and hard wood 
(see Fig. 56) doubled together and banded with riveted or welded bands* 
Hoops of heavy sheet iron, galvanized, with a welded band at top and bottom, 
are now generally preferred. The illustration (Fig. 56) is a perpendicular 
section of a wood hoop and press rings, showing the position of the rings in 
pressing, also a ring separate. The hoop is shown resting upon the press 
board, in which are seen the channels for conducting ofl" the whey. A is the 



406 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



follower, with its edge slightly beveled, corresponding with one side of the 
upper or triangular ring, b. The lower ring, c, is in its section a right-angled 
triangle, and is seen in its place at the bottom of the hoop, though by some 
this ring is not considered necessary. D is the upper ring shown out of the 
hoop. These rings are made of hard and tough wood by machinery, which 





FiGUEE 57. Figure 58. 

smoothly rives them into'a three-cornered shape and forms them into circles, 
so as to tightly fit the inner surface of the hoop, with ends butted together. 
The manner of using is: first place the hoop on the press board, insert the 
lower ring, press it down till it is flat upon the board, put in the curd, insert 





FiGTmE59. Figure 60. Figure 61. 

the upper ring just below the top of the hoop, put on the follower, and it is 
i-eady for the press. On removing the cheese from the hoop the rings slip 
out with it. After bandaging put in the cheese and the upper ring, forcing 
it down to the cheese, insert the follower and apply the pressure. By this 
means nothing but the whey can pass the rings, the corners of the cheese are 
left perfect, and the edge of the bandage is firmly impressed ; no press cloth 
is required, though some prefer a small round cloth for top and bottom. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



407 



CAST-STEEL DAIRY KNIVES FOR CUTTING UP THE CURD 

are differently arranged and mounted. They are of two kinds, the perpen- 
dicular and the horizontal (Figs. 57 and 58). The perpendicular is designed 
to pass through the vat, cutting up the curd into columns. Then the horizontal, 
passing through, cuts the columns into cubes. These knives are manufactured 
of sixteen, eighteen and twenty inch lengths, and from four to thirty blades 
each — to cut perpendicularly. The blades are now tin plated. From four to 
fifteen blades, the blades are half an inch apart; the twenty-blade knives are 
three-eighths of an inch, and the thirty-blade knives quarter of an inch apart. 
The four to six blades inclusive have handles on top of head, as in illustration 
Fig. 59. The seven to thirteen blades have handle on side of head as in Fig. 
60. The twenty and thirty blades have handles on both side and top of 
head, as shown on the horizontal cutting knife in the illustration. The 
thirty-blade perpendicular knife is intended for use where cheese is made 




PlGUKE 62. 



FiGUEE 63. 



FiGTIBB 64 



in the " coarse curd process," and is passed through the curd but once, 
cutting it into slices. The other perpendicular knives are passed through 
the curd both length and crosswise. The horizontal knives (Fig. 61) are 
eighteen and twenty inches long ; four, six and eight inches wide ; with blades 
half an inch apart. This knife is not intended to take the place of the per- 
pendicular knife, but to be used in connection with it. After cutting the 
curd length and crosswise, this knife cuts the columns into cubes. For dairy 
use, four to seven blades, perpendicular, and four inch horizontal ; for cheese 
factory, eleven and thirteen blades perpendicular, and eight inch horizontal. 
The rake agitator (Figure 62) is used for the purpose of agitating the curd 
while cooking, is very convenient and will save much labor. This is made 
of wood and tinned wire. The illustration (Fig. 63) gives another form of the 
agitator. Whey strainer and siphon (Figure 64), for the purpose of drawing 



408 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



off the whey. The lower part of the strainer is made of perforated tin. The 
syphon lias a faucet attached to one end, with a valve at the other, so con- 
structed that when filled with whey they will prevent it from escaping. It 
can then be carried to the vat in which the strainer is jDlaced, the valve end 
of the syphon is inserted in the strainer, the faucet end hanging over the 
trough for conducting off the whey. The whey immediately commences to 
run through the syphon on opening the faucets. 

CURD-MILLS, DAIRY-DIPPERS, ETC. 

Curd Mills are now coming into general use in many sections of the coun- 
try. Figure 65 represents the McAdam Mill ; it is constructed from iron, 
with the exception of the frame and hopper, which is wood ; it is geared up 
so as to run rapidly, and has a heavy balance-wheel to make it run easily. 
They are invaluable where the Cheddar system is adopted, and will be 
found a valuable article, particularly in hot weather wlien the milk is often 
not in the very best condition. At such times it has the effect of improving 

the quality of the curd by finely divid- 
ing, cooling and exi^osing it to the air ; 
equalizing its character and insuring 
more perfect salting. 

We give an illustration in Figure 66 
of Ralph's American Curd Mill. Re- 
ferring to the illustration it will be seen 
that the mill is fitted for lying upon the 
top of the cheese-vat or sink, and may 
be moved at pleasure or permanently 
Figure 65. Secured at one place. It consists of a 

wood frame, upon which is secured a metallic rack with curved I'ibs ; in this 
rack lie the picking cylinder or cylinders which are of tinned iron ; each 
cylinder having two rows of teeth set spirally, which teeth by the revolving 
of the cylinders, gradually enter between the curved ribs of the rack, carry- 
ing before them the picked curd into the receptacle below. 

The peculiarity of this machine is in the metallic cylinders, and the action 
of the teeth through the ribs of the curved rack, by means of which the curd 
is not only easily and rapidly picked up, but being gradually passed through 
the ribs, is not mashed, nor the butter separated from it. 

The cut represents a double cylinder or factory size, the cylinders being 
geared together. The dairy size has a single cylinder ; they are worked by 
hand with a crank, also arranged for power, being furnished with a balance- 
wheel to carry a belt. 

Dairy dippers (Figure 67) should be made from IXXXX tin, and hold 
from three to four quarts, the seams should be well filled with solder, and 
they should be made plain and smooth. Figure 68 is a flat-sided pail made 
for the purpose of dipping out the curd from the vat ; it should be made from 




Practical Dairi Husbandry. 409 

heavy tin, with bail, and a handle in the back. A curd-scoop (Figure 69) 
should accompany it, which is made from tin, somewhat in the shape of an 
ordinary dust-pan, but made heavier and more carefully soldered. The curd 
sink should be mounted on castors, so as to be readily moved in any direction ; 
these castors (Figure VO) should be made very heavy and substantial, with a 




FlSTJBE 66. 

projecting lip to take the weight off from the screws that fasten it to the legs 
of the sink. The wheel shank is so secured in the socket, that while it allows 
the wheel to revolve freely, it cannot slip out of place. The castors are 
secured to the legs by wood screws ; the bottom of the legs of the sink 
resting upon projecting lips made to receive them. Four constitute a set. 





FiGUEE 67. FlGUEE 68. 

Rubber mops (Figure Vl), a most desirable article for cleaning a wet 
floor, will save their cost in brooms several times dui'ing a season. No 
cheese factory will be without then when once tried. 

Dairy thermometers (Figure 72) should be made with a heavy brass back, 
and a small loose tin collar to slip over the bulb to protect it ; the handiest 
size is the ten-inch. The most approved patterns are now j)lated with nickel. 



410 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



SCALES. 

Good scales are an important feature in cheese factory fixtures. We give 
in Figs. 73, 74, 75, 76 and 77 difi'ereut forms of the Howe scales. These 





FiauKB 69. 



FiGXIEE 70. 



PlGUEE 71. 



o 



scales are accurate and reliable. By introducing chilled iron balls between 
the platform, and by making all the bearings self-adjusting ^ they 
take nearly all the wear from the pivots, upon the sharpness of 
which the accuracy and durability of all scales very largely 
depend. Fig. 74 represents a platform scale on wheels. This, 
or the one shown in Fig. 73, is the kind wanted by every cheese 
factory for weighing the milk when it is ti:vken in. About six 
hundred pound scales are the most desirable. Either of the 
scales shown in Figs. 75 and 76 are very convenient for weighing 
salt, &c., in cheese making, but the best to purchase in most cases is 
the Improved Union Scales (Fig. 77), as they not only answer for 
weighing small things, but have a convenient platform for 
weighing cheese or any heavy article. The Joi^es Scales are 
very similar in construction to the above, and are good, reliable 
scales. We give in Fig. 78 a cut of the Jones Stock Scales, 
which are found useful in weighing very heavy weights. 

THE RECTANGULAR CHEESE. 

Cheese has been made from time to time in a variety of 
shapes. In England and America the cylindrical form has always 
been most popular. Other shapes, such as the " pine-apple," the 
" cannon ball," the " Limberger " or brick shape, and the " French 
cakes," have been, each and all, of limited demand. Some of 
these shapes, such as the " pine-apple," have been made and are 
still made in small quantities in this country, and as a fancy 
Figure 72. article they sell at comparatively high prices. The " cannon 
ball " was at one time made in certain districts of New York to supply the 





xi 


210 


\ pi 


200 


i 1 


180- 


f \ 






I/O' 
ISO- 
150- 

no- 


e; i 


130- 
120- 


i „.. 


no- 


= ;""' 


100- 


-1 U»«.r» i 


90- 


=j ; 


80- 


= ; 


70- 


1 \ 


GO 


- ^% 


SO- 
■tO 


E ; FBCn 


30 


- ; ^""' 


20 


1 \ 


10 


% ■ 





1 '- 1 


10 


a| 1 








^^^^ 




1 '^ ' ' 




ll^J 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



411 



Navy. The " Edam " of Holland is round like a ball, and on account of its 
small size finds ready sale in England, Avliere it is in favor among the lower 
classes, the farm laborers, and those who desire a low priced cheese, and 
cannot aiford to indulge in the better sorts. The Limberger is only suited to 
German tastes. It is rank in taste and smell, and comparatively few English- 
men or Americans have learned to like it. It is manufactured to some extent 
in this country to supply our German population, but is not exported. The 




FlGUEE 73. 



FiGXJEE 74. 



FiGUEE 75. 



French cakes have not been made in America. A good deal has been said 
at one time and another about changing the cylindrical or common shape of 
our cheese to a square or oblong form. And the reasons urged for this 
change are that the present shapes entail a heavy expense in boxing, while 
they cannot be cut in small pieces to advantage. A wedge of cheese, it is 
contended, must always leave more waste, when it4s divided up for the table, 
than the same Aveight in a square form, and as small cubical blocks are more 
pleasing to the eye than irregular pieces cut from a wedge, this alone is good 
reason why a square or cubical-shaped cheese should be made. But ac the 





Figure 76. 



FiGUEB 77. 



material for making cylindrical boxes is growing scarce and exj)ensive, a 
cheese of another form is required to meet this difficulty. Square boxes are 
not only more economical in cost of material and in the labor of making, but 
as they can be packed closer, there would be a gain over round boxes in 
the matter of freight when sending to market. These are the arguments 
that have been urged by the advocates of this radical change in cheese manu- 
facture. On the other hand, serious objections have been suggested against 



412 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



the proposed change. In the first place a reputation has been established in 
the markets for cheese of a particular shape, and it is a question whether the 
prejudices of consumers for these shapes could be readily overcome. It was 
thought, too, by many, that by making cheese in a square form the corners 
and edges Avould be more liable to break in handling, and finally, that there, 
would be difficulty in securing the bandage, and thus the matter has rested 
until quite recently. 

Tlie first practical experiments in the way of making square-shaped 
cheeses, we believe, are due to Mr. Holdkidge of Otsego county, N. Y. He 
has been for several years developing his system of cheese manufacture, but 
his plans were not fully matured until last year, when his new style of cheese 
was put upon the markets. We have seen several letters written by dealers 
who have handled the " Holdridge cheese," in which its shape and quality 
are highly commended, and from which it appears that sales have been 
readily made at good figures. As the plan adopted by Mr. Holdkidge is 
original, and may be somewhat new to the dairy public, I shall briefly allude 
to some of its leading features. In the first place the curds are pressed in a 

square box, arranged with fol- 
lower, &c., on the plan of the 
common hoop. The cubical 
block of curd is then removed 
from the frame and cut with a 
fine saAV into blocks of the 
desired size. For these blocks 
Mr. HoLDEiDGE adopts an ob- 
FiGUKE 78. long form, the ends being 

square. A strip of bandage cloth, just wide enough to wrap around these 
blocks, (a small piece having previously been adjusted on the ends), is wet in 
water. The dampness causes it to adhere to the cheese. The blocks of curd 
are then simply laid upon the cloth and rolled over tmtil the sides are covered, 
when the ends are lapped down, and this completes the process of bandaging. 
The bandaged blocks are then laid in the hoop in the same order in which 
they were cut, the courses being separated by thin boards, and when in place 
form a cubical mass. Then the follower is adjusted and pressure applied in 
the same Avay as for ordinary cheese. This process fastens the bandage 
securely, and after being properly pressed the frame is taken off, the blocks 
separated and put upon the shelves. While curing, these blocks of cheese 
are turned from day to day, but only a quarter revolution at a time. Mr. 
Holdkidge claims that the escape of the whey by evaporation is greatly 
facilitated by the form of the cheese, inasmuch as the whey percolates towards 
the bottom, and the turning being only a quarter revolution, or at right 
angles, it constantly tends toward the outside, while in the ordinary form of 
cheese the turning from one side to the other has a tendency to keep the 
whey in the center of the cheese. In the block-shaped cheese, therefoi-e, the 




Practical Dairy Husbandry. 413 

whey is so flir dissipated that decomposition is less liable to take place, and 
further, that the cheese can be preserved without tlie greasing process com- 
monly employed. He claims also that for the retail trade the block cheese is 
of great advantage, since the dealer can weigli the whole cheese and cut by 
measure the exact weight desired. And again, for family use they are 
superior, since by turning the bandage back from the end a thin slice may be 
cut off for the table, the bandage replaced and the cheese set on end, thereby 
excluding the freshly cut surface from the air, preventing drying and the 
attack of flies. 

In the manuficture of small cheeses it will be observed the i^lan proi^osed 
must be a great saving in presses and hoops, while the ease and rapidity of 
adjusting the bandage is a matter of some consideration. I have examined 
the HoLDETDGE rectangular appliances for pressing Avith considerable care. 
The whole is very simple, easily operated, and not liable to get out of order. 
The plan, if successfully adopted, must save a large amount of labor at cheese 
factories, since one curb and one j^i'ess is sufficient for a large quantity of 
curd. Then the cheese can be made of any desired weight without going to 
the extra expense of procuring hoops and presses and scre'ws to meet the 
emergency. For making small sized cheeses, say from ten to thirty pounds, 
it would seem to be admirably adapted. Small sized cheeses are very much 
needed in the home trade, and are not supplied in sufficient quantity for the 
reason that manufacturers have not been willing to take the extra expense 
of labor and appliances for their production. Under the rectangular plan 
most of the objections to making a small sized cheese are obviated. We see 
no reason w^hy the rectangular cheese cannot be made of equal quality with 
other shapes. Indeed, Ave have tested numerous samples made at different 
seasons of the year, and have found them excellent. The small expense in 
boxing this style of cheese alone commends it to favorable consideration. 
But of course the prejudice for round shapes among certain consumers may 
interfere for a time with the general introduction of rectangular cheese. Still 
from the success already obtained for this plan, and the favor with which the 
cheese has been received in the home and foreign markets, there is reason to 
believe that the oblong shapes are destined to work a revolution in the old 
styles of cheese. We hear of a number of factories this year, 1871, entering 
upon their manuf icture, and by the end of the season enough cheeses will 
have been made to fully test the feeling of different markets in regard to the 
new shapes. 

We give a cut (Fig. 79) representing the curb and press, and the manner 
in which the cheese is placed for pressure. A represents cheese with 
bandage. B, composite mold. C, square curb or hoop. D and E, mortised 
slips for connecting the hoops. Mr. Holdridge, the inventor, gives the 
following statement as regards the comparative cost of making rectangular 
cheese and round cheese, together with the directions for pressing, ban- 



414 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



daging and boxing, which will be useful to those proposing to adopt this 
style of manufacture : 

Saving in Boxes^ Down Weights and Handling. — ComparatiTe cost of 
manufacture, boxing, &c., of one hundred pounds of cheese made into ten 
pound rectangular cheese, or made into fifty jjound round cheese : — Ten 




Figure 79. 



rectangular cheese, five by five by ten inches, weigh one hundred pounds. 
Two round cheese, fifteen inches in diameter and eight inches high, weigh 
one hundred pounds. Bandage for round cheese, three-quarters wide, say 
one yard, costs six cents; to box two such cheese, forty-four cents. Total 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 415 

cost for one hundred pounds, fifty cents. Bandage for ten rectangular cheese, 
as above, three yards, three-quarters wide, cost eighteen cents ; boxes for one 
hundred pounds, thirty cents. Total cost per one hundred pounds, forty-eight 
cents ; a saving of two cents per one hundred pounds. 

Comparing ten pound rectangular with fifty pound round cheese : — These 
small cheeses are packed eighteen (one hundred and eighty jDounds) in a case. 
The same amount of cheese in fifty pound round cheese would require three 
down weights or more — a loss of two weights, not less than one pound of 
cheese as compared with the small cheese — worth sixteen cents. A saving 
of about nine cents per one hundred pounds, which, added to the two cents 
saved as above, makes not less than eleven cents per one hundred pounds 
saved thus far in favor of rectangular small cheese. Tliis saving greatly 
increases as the size of the round cheese compared with the rectangular 
diminishes. 

Compare twenty-five povmds rectangular Avith the same size round cheese: 
Round cheese of this weight are about thirteen inches in diameter and six 
inches high. Rectangular cheese, same weight, are seven by seven by four- 
teen inches. The bandage for round cheese, per one hundred pounds, costs 
seven cents ; four boxes at sixteen cents, sixty-four cents. Total for one 
hundred pounds, seventy-one cents. Rectangular cheese : — Bandage, twelve 
cents ; boxes, twenty-five cents. Total per one hundred jDOunds, thirty-peven 
cents ; saved, thirty -four cents. To this should be added seven down weights 
saved, (three and a-half pounds of cheese), to case of eight cheeses, per one 
hundred pounds, twenty-eight cents. Total saved per one hundred pounds, 
sixty-two cents. In comparing fifty jDound round cheese with rectangular 
cheese eight by eight by sixteen inches, weighing same, the saving per one 
hundred pounds is thirty cents. The above figures do not include the 
saving in screws, hoops and frames, nor in labor required to take Care of them. 

Saving in IIoops^ Screws, Sc. — To manufacture the milk from five hun- 
dred cows requires hoops, screws and appurtenances to take care of at least one 
thousand pounds of curd. To maniifacture this into fifty pound round cheese 
Avould require twenty hoops, screws, frames, &c., and would cost not less 
than $15 per set ; total, $300. To manufacture the same curd into rectangu- 
lar cheese, twenty-five pounds each, would, if pressed into eight cheeses, two 
hiuidred pounds in a curb, require but five curbs, which, Avith screws and 
frames, would not cost over $150. A net saving of fifty per cent. To make 
the same amount of curd into ten pound rectangular cheese would require, 
if pressed in curbs thirty by thirty inches, two cheese in thickness, three 
curbs and fixtui'es, and would not cost over $100. 

Saving in Soxes. — We box eight cheese, thirty-pound size, in one case 

— two hundred and forty pounds — and the box will cost not over sixty cents, 

and can be furnished for less, as they can be made of pieces of boards and 

refuse lumber. We box the ten-pound size, eighteen in a case — one hundred 

. and eighty pounds — and boxes cost each sixty cents. By comparing these 



I 



416 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

figures with the cost of boxes for round cheese, per one hundred pounds tlie 
saving in expense is readily seen. We can use the same screws and frames 
as used with hoojDS. The common round hoops cost about |5 each, and pres^ 
from twenty-five to fifty pounds of curd. Our curbs cost from |15 to |20 
each, and press from two hundred to four hundred pounds, or more. Curbs 
without sections cost twenty per cent, less. The expense of these can be 
lessened by using one or more locked or hinged curbs, with boxes dove- 
tailed or screwed together for first pressing the curd. And when several 
locked curbs are used they do not all require sections. Much less room for 
presses is required and the drying room can be much smaller for these 
cheeses than for round ones, as they occupy less space on the table or shelves, 
and the shelves can be placed one above the other. The rooms can be better 
ventilated, as the cheese are bandaged all over and will not crack. By usino- 
our style of press or curb, cheese can be pressed as long as desired, as each 
day's cheese can be jDut under one press. 

TJie Press Cloths. — Two press cloths are used Avith each curb. A square 
one, a little larger than tlie curb, and a long one, of sufllcient length to reach 
around inside of the curb, and wide enough to protect the sides of the curb. 
Place the square press cloth upon the press board and put the curb upon it. 
Put in the long press cloth around the inside of the curb, and let it lap about 
an inch upon the bottom towards the center of the curb. If this cloth be not 
wide enough to cover the top of the cheese, a small square cloth should be 
used. Put in curd enough to make the cake of required thickness. Put in 
the follower and press the curd till next morning, or till sufficiently formed 
to cut. Having removed the screw, lift up one side of the curb and" pull the 
bottom press cloth back half way, then lift up the other side and remove thej 
cloth. -Take out the pins and loosen and remove the curb and side and top ■ 
press cloths, and the cake is ready to cut. Cut the cake by measure into 
desired sizes. 

To Bandage the Cheese.— Cwt the bandage into strips, one inch wider 
than the length of the cheese, and of sufficient length to reach around the 
cheese and lap about an inch. Also cut square pieces one inch larger than 
the end of the cheese. Place the pieces of bandage in a vessel of water, and 
put on the bandage wet. Place the end pieces on first, lapping over the ends 
one-half an inch all around. The side piece is put on as follows : Place one 
end of the bandage near the middle of the uppermost side of the cheese, 
spread it smoothly and turn the cheese from the person, and the bandage can 
be put on very smooth. Smooth over the corners and ends, and replace the 
cheese into the curb for second pressing. Where quantities of this cheese 
are made, we use a common table having on the under side a trough of water, 
and the bandage is cut into long strips of proper width and placed in the 
water in rolls on spools, and through slots in the table is drawn np as 
required, and cut off" as each cheese is bandaged. This is a very simple and 
cheap arrangement, and will greatly assist in preparing and putting on the . 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. ' 417 

bandage. The bandaged cheese having been piled upon the press board, 
the curb is locked around it. Between each layer of cheese jjlace an inch 
board same size as the follower. Nothing but the bandage is placed between 
the cheeses in the same layer. Apply the screw and press as long as desired. 
When the cheeses are first put upon the shelves or tables, place them close 
together for a few days, to prevent drying too fast, and after that keep them 
about an inch apart — to be governed by the weather and how fast they are 
desired to dry. The cheese should be rubbed and turned a quarter revolu- 
tion daily, and kept nice and clean. 

JBoxes. — We box these cheese as follows : Ten-pound cheese, eighteen 
cheeses in a case. Twenty to thirty-pound cheese, eight cheeses in a case. 
The boxes are made of one-half inch stuff for the sides, and inch stuff for the 
ends and middle partition. The end pieces are set in a little from the ends 
of the sides, and a small cleat nailed around the outside of the heads, as shown 
in the engraving, makes them very firm. The middle i^iece is same size and 
shape as the heads. A cleat is put around the boxes outside at the ends and 
middle to keep them from being packed too closely together. This cleat 
should be of one-half inch stuff, and about an inch wide. (This cleat does 
not show in engraving.) The lumber should all be planed, it looks so much 
better ; and if the cover is fastened on with screws, it will be an advantage, 
as shippers and others can inspect the cheese without injury to the box, and 
where the market is not too far off the empty boxes can be returned. A 
thin piece of veneer or board, of same size as side of cheese, should be j)ut 
between each cheese in the box, as a scale board, and the boxes should^ always 
lie so that the cheese stand on end. It pays well to make a neat looking 
package. Butter dairymen understand this, and know that the price of their 
butter is sei'iously affected by the appearance of the jaackage. We know 
from experience that good, neat looking boxes for our cheeses are a profit- 
able investment. 

THE CHEESE RACK AND SETTEE, 

•were considered indispensable in the curing rooms of the early factories, but 
the necessity now for their use is not so great. Indeed, with the medium- 
sized cheese now generally made, many prefer the simple table on which to 
place the cheese while curing, as it is easier cleaned and affords more room. 
The cheese rack consists of scantling (four by five inches) with the corners 
beveled or cut so as to be five-sided ; these ai'e framed the proper distance 
at the ends and set on legs of the desired hight, forming a skeleton table. 
Or, instead of legs, arms may be framed into the posts which support the 
floors of the curing room, and upon these arras the scantling are placed to 
form the rack. Then round covers of inch hemlock or pine, bound with 
stout elm rims, three or four inches wide, set upon the racks and hold the 
cheese. When the cheese is to be turned, a spare cover is placed on top, and 
the cheese and covers turned over ; the cover now on top is removed, rubbed 
with a cloth, and is ready to be applied to the next cheese. The rims of the 
27 



418 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



covers protect tbe edges of the cheese in the process of turning • and a part 
of the cheese swinging down in the open space between the timbers, and the 
rims resting on the beveled sides, renders the operation not only easy but 
insures safety to the cheese. A lai-ge cheese can be turned with as much 
ease on a properly constructed rack as the loosening of the cheese on the 
table preparatory to being turned. Large cheeses are difficult to handle on 
a table, and are liable to have their edges broken or in other ways marred 
in turning. The illustration (Fig. 80) gives an idea of the manner of con- 
structing the rack. 

CONVENIENT APPLIANCES. 

In the construction and fitting up of factories, it is very important to have 
every department as conveniently arranged as possible. Attention should 
be given to have every appliance for saving labor and facilitating all the 
various operations. Good factory hands are comparatively scarce, and com- 
mand large wages. By having conveniently arranged buildings and handy 
implements, the labor of one or two persons may be saved, and this is an 




FiGUKE 



important item. In a recent visit to Chautauqua County, I found some 
things adopted at the Sinclairville Factory, by which the operations were 
very expeditiously conducted. The Sinclairville Factory is one of the 
largest in the State of New York, receiving the milk of fifteen hundred cows 
and upward. Where such a large quantity of milk is received at one place, 
it is evident more than ordinary attention must be given to have the various 
parts of the factory and its appliances so as to be convenient, for if otherwise 
there would be great liability of neglect from time to time, which would 
result in damaging the product 

THE MAIN BUILDING 

is one hundred and twenty feet by fifty feet, three stories high, and this 
structure is wholly employed as a dry house or cheese curing department. 
The two lines of posts running through the central part of the building, in 
the several stories, to support the frame, are also made of use in holding the 
arms on which the tables or shelves rest, one above the other, thereby giving 
the building capacity for storing a large number of cheeses. Some idea of 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 419 

its capacity will be liad from the fact that at one time nine thousand cheeses 
(fifteen-inch size) were stored upon the shelves. 

THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT 

is in a wing extending in a line with the main building, one hundred and 
thirty feet long by thirty-two feet broad, and one story high. From the 
main building to the end of the wing the floor has one foot fall. The floor 
also descends from either side toward the center, where there is a narrow 
ditch for conducting ofi" the whey and slops. The vats are upon one side and 
the presses upon the other side, opposite. The space from the vats to the 
side of the building occupied by the presses is eleven feet, which gives ample 
room for the sink, provided with large casters, to move up and down between 
the vats and presses as desired, while sufficient room is given on either side 
of the sink for the hands to work in, stirring the curds, &c., &c. 

THE SINK 

is three feet two inches wide by thirteen feet four inches in length. The 
bottom is made dishing, and is of matched pine, except in the center, where 
there is a narrow strip of perforated tin, through which the whey escapes to 
a movable trough, which is a little wider than the tin, and fits up close to 
the bottom of the sink, so that all the whey dripping from the curds is 
caught. At the upper end of the manufacturing department, and adjoining 
the dry-house, a space thirty feet long is devoted to 

A DRESSING ROOM. 

There are tables along the side of this department, where the cheese, 
when taken from the press, are received and dressed preparatory to going 
forward into the dry-house. At the lower end of the manufactory there is 
an open shed or covered drive-way, where the teams deliver milk. Upon 
one side stand the platform scales, three and a-half feet higher than the floor 
of the drive-way. The usual weighing can and its accompanying tin milk 
conductor are not used at this factory. Instead, there is a truck running on 
rails along the heads of vats. This truck has a platform about the same 
hight from the floor as that upon which the scales rest. When the milk 
teams come in, the cans are moved directly from the wagon to the scales, 
and after being weighed go upon the truck, which is then moved along to 
the head of the vat and dumped. One edge of the platform on the truck is 
cut down lower than the others, and has a notch to receive the bottom of the 
can on this side, so as to facilitate dumping, and also to prevent the can 
from slipping while being dumped. The platform scales being about the 
same hight as the milk wagons, there is no difficulty in rolling the can upon 
the scales, and from the scales to the dumping truck. Each patron's can is 
weighed and marked, so that the weight of milk is rapidly obtained. There 
is no bother with cranes, no weighing can to be kept clean, no milk con- 
ductor to look after, while the operation of weighing and delivering the milk 



420 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



to the vats, Mr. Burnham, the proprietor, says, can be done quite as rapidly , 
and safely as by the usual method, and with no more labor. On the other ll 
hand, a very large amount of work in cleaning weighing can and milk con- 
ductors is obviated during the season, while at the same time there is less 
liability of sour milk, &c., arising from neglect on the part of factory hands 
to keep these utensils in j^roper order. The arrangement seemed to be 
convenient, as it certainly was ingenious, and being so different from the 
usual plan of delivering milk, may prove suggestive to those persons who 
are about to build cheese factories. 

THE CURD FILLER. 

Another handy device in use at this factory is that for filling the hoops 
with curd. A tin form (see Fig. 81) just large enough to slip down inside 
the hoop is used. It is a little longer than the hoop, and is surmounted by 
a flaring top, and when in place, has the appearance of a common tin pan 
sitting upon the hoop (see Fig. 82). 





Figure 81. 



Figure 82. 



Now, when the hoop is to be filled with curd, the lower or smaller end 
of this tin form receives a circular piece of cotton cloth just large enough to 
cover the bottom and come up over the edges of the tin outside — say about 
an inch. The cloth having been dampened and spread over the tin, is pushed 
into the hoop. It covers the bottom of the hoop, and the edges, of course, 
are held between the hoop and the tin, about an inch high all around the 
hoop. The curd is now placed in the hoop, and when full the tin form drawn 
out, which leaves the bottom cloth with edges turned up between the curd 
and hoop, preventing the escape of the curd during pressure. A circular cap 
of cloth is put on the top when the follower is adjusted and the cheese goes 
to press. By this device the use of large pressing-cloths is avoided, while a 
nice surface is secured to the cheese, making a considerable saving, not only 
in expense for cloth, but in labor of washing, &c. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



421 



THE BANDAGING MACHINE. 

This is another convenient arrangement by which a cheese can be very 
expeditiously bandaged. It consists simply of a circular-topped stool (see 
Figure 83) for placing the cheese upon as it comes from the press. The top 
of the stool is about the same diameter as that of the cheese to be bandaged. 
A strip of tin is bent into a circle, so that it may be made to inclose the 
cheese. The ends are not joined together (see Figure 84), so that it may be 
contracted or exj)anded. It is provided with handles. 

Now, when the cheese is to be bandaged, it is placed upon the stool, the 
circular tin contracted so as to readily receive the bandage, when it is allowed 
to expand, and is then forced down over the cheese and over the stool, or so 
far as is necessary to make a lap of bandage for the under side of the cheese. 





FiGUEE 83. FiGUKE 84. 

Then the tin is withdrawn, leaving the bandage nicely in place. The work 
is very rapidly effected, without trouble or tearing the bandage; and a 
closer and better fit may be made than where the bandage is drawn on by 
hand, as in the old way. 

THE MILK TESTER. 

In testing of milk, from time to time, the common lactometer, or set of 
glass tubes graduated, is used. But instead of marking the name of the 
patron back of each tube to designate it, as is usual at many factories, 
figures (see Figure 85) are used, which refer to corresponding names kept 
in a private book. Thus the tests may be conducted without arousing suspi- 
cion or causing unpleasant feeling among the patrons on account of subjecting 
the milk to a test. This plan seems to be altogether preferable to the use of 
names directly on the apparatus, since all unpleasant remarks concerning 
certain specimens of milk by those going through the factory are avoided, as 
the names corresponding with the numbers are known only to the factory 
manager, and can be kept secret by him. We give an illustration herewith 



422 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



of the glass tubes set in a frame, and each with its appropriate number on 
the board at the back part of the frame. 

THE " YOUNG AMERICAN " CHEESE. 

Small cheeses of the " Young America " style have been manufactured at 
this factory, and sales for such have averaged considerably more than for 
large cheese. These cheeses are pressed in hoops seven inches in diameter 
and the cheeses made from six to seven inches high. S^eral are pressed \ 
together under one screw — in some cases as many as sixteen. They are set 
together, the followers adjusted, and a thick, wide plank put upon the 
blocking, so that the whole may be pressed evenly and alike. In boxing | 
these cheeses for market, twenty-one and a-half inch boxes are used, and 
seven cheeses put in a box. One cheese stands in the center of the box, and 
the others are arranged about it, and they thus fill the box, so that 'they 
may be safely sent to market, without moving about or marring. We were 
much pleased with several other features at this factory, but which we have 
no space now to describe. 




Fi&UKE 85. 
ON FACTORY BUILDINGS AND FIXTURES. 

The following from the pen of Dr. L. L. Wight, who has had large expe- 
rience in the management of factories, will appropriately close this branch 
of our work : 

^' The first thing to be considered in selecting a site for building, after 
having secured a sufficient number of cows, is a plentiful supj^ly of cold, 
running water. The quantity should not be less than sufficient to fill a two- 
inch pipe, for the milk oPf every five hundred cows. The temperature of this 
water should not rise above sixty degrees in the warmest weather of summer. 
Instead of erecting the buildings over some low, marshy, swampy ground, 
where water, slop and whey will settle and stagnate and infect the superin- 
cumbent air, as is too often the case, by all means select some dry, hard, airy 
location, a little descending to the rear, and with a continuous descent from 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 423 

the building, to insure the escape of all decomposing liquids to a safe distance. 
The size of the main building should be thirty-two feet wide, two stories 
high, of eight feet each in the clear, and the length will depend upon the 
amount of milk anticipated. A building seventy-five feet long will accommo- 
date the milk from five or six hundred cows. Let the piers be made very 
substantial, extending to a depth beyond the possibility of frost, and not be 
over about ten feet apart in either direction. The main timbers, being ten 
by twelve inches square, support thi'ee by ten inch joists, not set in gains but 
resting on the cross-sills. The joists must be sound and set not over sixteen 
inches apart, being well bridged. The flooring of the manufactory, made 
of well-matched, sound yellow pine-plank, inclines three inches from the front, 
to a substantial box-drain made in the floor, four feet from the rear. The 
floor also inclines slightly from the rear to said drain. The drain drops from 
each end of the manufactory to the center, where it enters another box which 
conveys all slop, whey, etc., to a safe distance from the building. The entire 
outside is covered with well-seasoned, matched, sound pine-siding. The 
entire sides and ends of the manufacturing part, inside, are ceiled with pine. 
The ceiling is well plastered. The curing-rooms have floors laid with good, 
sound, seasoned spruce flooring. The sides are double-plastered, so as to make 
two fixed air spaces. The ceilings are also all well plastered. There need 
be no posts to support the floor. The second floor is supported by iron rods 
suspended from bridges in the attic. The entire building is well lighted by 
double-sash windows, which are supplied with good rotary outside blinds. 
Thorough ventilation of the curing-room is secured by the building being 
elevated so far above the ground as to admit of an abundance of air ; and 
the insertion of large registers in each bent, under every counter in the first 
and second floors, and by good ventilators through the attic floor and roof. 
By careful attention to these registers, and keeping the blinds closed in hot 
and sunny days, the temperature can usually be kept at a sufficiently low 
degree, even in the warmest weather. An ice chamber in the attic, so 
arranged as to register the cold, moist air into the curing-rooms below, would 
likely at times be beneficial. The curing-rooms are supplied with counters 
twenty-four inches high and three feet wide ; each table being made of two 
seventeen-inch wide pine plank, with a two inch space between them. 
Matched boards under cheese are objectionable, from the greater difficulty 
of cleansing and the danger of skippers infesting the cracks. It is better to 
have the counters two feet distant from each other for the convenience of the 
laborers, cheese-buyers and visitors. The manufacturing-room will be sepa- 
rated from the curing-room below by a tight double partition, with a large 
sliding door in the center, between the two lines of presses. The length of 
the manufacturing and pressing-room, in a building Of the size above men- 
tioned, would be thirty-five or forty feet. The boiler-room, and wood or 
coal-room will be erected at the end and adjoining the manufactory, having 
easy entrance thereto. A building about thirteen feet square should be 



*24 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

attached to the front of the manufactory, containing a drive-way and a 
receiving-platform. The platform will be closed toward the drive-way 
except a shde window to receive tl^ milk through, and be open toward the 
vats. The center of this building will correspond to the center of the vats 
so that the receiving-can may stand equi-distant from each outside vat The 
ground of the drive-way is four and one-half feet below the top of the weigh 
mg-can. The receivmg-platform is about one foot higher than the top of the 
milk-vats. This building is supplied with means to hoist the cans of milk 
either by a crane-derrick, or, what is preferable, a hoisting wheel. Permit 
no faucets in the transporting cans, as they cause the milk to taint when not 
cleansed thoroughly, and are liable to be neglected. The wooden vats being 
about fifteen feet m length, it gives three feet between the receivinc-platform 
and the end of the vats ; two feet between the vats and the curd-sink ; two 
feet between the curd-sink and the presses, and two feet between the presses 
and the rear of the building. The vats are separated two feet from each 
other, and three feet from the end of the building. The wooden vats almost 
invanably leak, and I think it would be better to have them lined with sheet- 
lead. The tin vats should be made of the largest sheets of tin, of the best 
quahty, and be soldered together very smoothly. The wooden vat should 

rminTtVth l"" "'"'"^^ ''' one-half length of the vat, and not 
coming to the edge or upper end within four inches. The wooden vats 

fThe fit 'Vh"" r' "^'' ''^' ^^'^^"'"^^ '^ ^^^ ^-^' '^ ^^ - the wa; 
the v!t !bv "T --venient way of raising and lowering the foot of 

the vat 1. by means of a standard, spring and catch, attached to the floor and 
the lower end of the vat. The space between the last vat and the curing- 

"oTnrsaltT""" r T '"" '' P"^^^^' ^"^ ^''' -ffi--* -om fi 
Ind Live f ' '"T- ' • TT" J""' '"■ ^^"^"^^ ^^P^°-' conductors, pails 
and knives for washing-smk, hot and cold water barrels, etc. Supply each 
milk vat with a water pipe of at least three-quarters of an inch bore. The 
water, after having circulated around and cooled the milk, will be conducted 

a7J^ "'^. ^"^ ^'^'"^'^ '^' P°^^^ t° ^°^« t^« "^i^k agitator, of which 
t? 1. !, ^'. '' recommended. If the factory is to receive the milk of 
^11 .^'t T\ '' """'''' ^'' ^ '''"™ ^"^^°^ ''^ ''^' ^^«« than two horse- 
LTnditn' f 1 "^ ""' ^''' '^"" " '^" torse-power. It requires the 
expendituie of a large quantity of steam to warm the milk, and you want to 
DC sure of it just when you need it ; and the engine will enable you to pump 
water into the boiler, to grind your curds, to churn, if you wish, to saw your 
wood, or perform what other service soever you may desire. If you have a 
less number of cows than above indicated, a patent heater manufactured by 
Chakles Millar & Son of Utica, will heat the milk gradually and very 
perfectly and gives general satisfaction. If you do not grind your curds you 
will need two curd-sinks, so as to give greater facility for cooling the curds , 
before putting to press. Your milk conductors will be large, stout, and open 1 
at the top to msure easy cleansing. Procure a good curd-mill to be used at ' 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 425 

least in hot weather. You want one gang knife of thirty blades, with one- 
fourth inch spaces, and one horizontal curd knife. If you use a steam boiler 
use the steam dry, afcer the method patented by Mr. Schekmerhoen. Alto- 
gether the best method of warming the curing-room is by steam from the 
boiler. This gives a more equable temperature, and a raoister, purer atmos- 
phere. The next best mode of heating is by a furnace, well supplied with 
water for evaporation. Wood or coal stoves do not sufficiently equalize the 
temperature. Having an ice chamber in the attic, you can perform the 
double operation of cooling and moistening the rooms at any time. Curd- 
rakes, to keep the curd from packing, are nearly as indispensable as curd- 
knives. The paj;ent horizontal jjress, pressing a number of cheeses at once, 
with one screw, will come into general use when the patentee has learned to 
obviate the difficulty of making an indentation or crease in each cheese, Avhich 
harms their appearance, and supplies an excellent place for the generation of 
skippers in fly time. The followers must fit the hoops very nearly, or if not, 
the use of the rubber ring is necessitated. The use of this will hinder the 
curd from passing up between the hoop and the follower. In very hot 
weather, however, the acid in the whey soon decomposes the rubber and 
necessitates new purchases. No press cloths are needed. The rings and 
staples in the followers you buy are worthless, and should be replaced by 
your blacksmith, before attempting to use them. Turning covers are not 
wanted, even if the patentee will pay you for using them. Fairbanks' scales 
are the most reliable and give the best satisfaction. In weighing cheese for 
market, use a suitable sized counter-scale, which you can slip along readily on 
the counter, as you weigh each cheese, before being boxed. Give good 
up-weight in this manner, and there need be no trouble of having short 
weights returned upon you. Fine cap cloths give the smoothest rind. A 
convenient door will 'be made in each end of the second story, and in the end 
of the curing-room below, through which the cheeses may pass to the wagons 
on shipping. The boxes may very readily be slid from the second story to 
the wagons on properly constructed skids." 



CHEESE MANUFACTUILE. 



THE ENGLISH STANDARD AS TO THE TLAVOE OF CHEESE. 

Milk varies in character from various causes, but chiefly in the butter and 
milk-sugar, the caseine showing but slight variations. Now the great art 
sought by the cheese dairymen is in extracting two of the above constituents 
of the milk — caseine and butter — and combining them with the water in 
such proportions as to make a palatable article to suit a certain arbitrary 
taste. I say arbitrary, because taste is educated, and different nations have 
different standards as to what is palatable. 

When I was in Switzerland I saw gentlemen, apparently of the highest 
respectability, eating cheese of a most intensely disagreeable odor. They 
ate this cheese with a relish, and pronounced it excellent, while, to my taste, 
it had all the peculiarities of badly tainted food, the very odor of which was 
nauseating. Some of the Germans also like a strong and rancid cheese. 

The English taste, both for butter and cheese, has changed materially 
during the last half century. What is noAV required in cheese is a mild, 
clean flavor, with a certain mellowness of texture, readily dissolving under 
the tongue, and leaving a nutty, new milk taste in the mouth. The English 
demand a cheese of solid texture — that is, free from porosity — because a 
porous cheese usually indicates an imperfect separation of the whey, or undue 
fermentation. Such cheese often has a sweetish taste, which is owing to the 
excess of the sugar of milk in the whey, and they invariably turn with a bad 
flavor. The market value of cheese does not depend entirely on the amount 
of butter which it contains. In an address before the American Dairymen's 
Association a few years ago, I broached and discussed this point. It was 
new doctrine, which the dairy public, and especially dealers, were not then 
prepared to admit. 

The experiments at factories, since that time, have proved the assump- 
tion, and shown that cheese made from milk partially skimmed was not even 
suspected by the dealer at home, and was pronounced first quality in the' 
English market. The fact has also been established by Dr. Voelcker, in 
the analyses of different samples of cheese ; the common or ordinary Amer- 
ican, he finds richer in butter than the best English Cheddar, which is the 
highest grade of cheese known to English taste. It may not be out of place, 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 427 

in this connection, to give Dr. Yoelcker's language. He says :— " One of 
the chief tests of the skill of the dairymaid is the j^roduction of a rich tasting 
and looking, fine flavored and mellow cheese, from milk not particularly rich 
in cream. That this can be done, is abundantly proved by the practice of 
good makers. One of the finest Cheddars I ever examined was made by Mr. 
Joseph HARDme of Marksbury, Somersetshire, and analyzed by me when 
six months old. Like all good cheese, it of course contained a large amount 
of butter, though, as I found by experiment, not nearly so large an amount 
as its appearance, rich taste, and fine, mature condition seemed to imply. 
Though only six months old, it had a much more mature appearance than a 
Cheddar cheese which was at least eleven months old when analyzed, and, 
thanks to Mr. Harding's skill and experience, had a far much fatter and 
more mellow appearance and richer taste, than a specimen which actually 
contained two and a-half per cent, more butter." " In the opinion of good 
judges," he goes on to remark " this Cheddar cheese, notwithstanding the 
larger amount of butter and smaller amount of water it contained, was worth 
a penny a pound less than the specimen made by Mr. Harding." 

MELLOW APPEARANCE. 

" The peculiar mellow appearance of good cheese, though due to some 
extent to the butter it contains, depends, in a higher degree, upon a gradual 
transformation, which caseine or curd undergoes in ripening. Now, if this 
ripening process is badly conducted, or the original character of the curd is 
such that it adapts itself but slowly to the transformation, the cheese, Avhen 
sold, will be comparatively tough, and appear less rich in butter than it really 
is, while in a well made and properly kept cheese, this series of changes will 
be rapidly and thoroughly efiected." 

PROPER RIPENING. 

" Proper ripening, then, imparts to cheese a rich appearance, and unites 
with the butter in giving it that most desirable property of melting in the 
mouth. On examining some cheeses deficient in this melting property, and 
accordingly pronounced by practical judges defective in butter, I neverthe- 
less found in them a very high percentage of that substance, clear proof that 
the mellow and rich taste is not owing entirely, or indeed is chiefly due, to 
the fatty matter which it contains." 

I do not introduce this topic for the purpose of advising manufacturers to 
skim the milk for cheese-making, but rather as a suggestion that no efibrt 
should be spared in acquiring that skill in manufacturing which is able to 
bring about desirable results, and to show that, even with the best material, 
a cheese unskillfully made may be tough, poor and unpalatable. 

THE PROPORTION OF MOISTURE IN CHEESE. 

Now, it may not be uninteresting to know what are the component parts 
of what is considered the highest grade of cheese in the English market, such 



428 Practical Dairy Husbandry. ^| 

as we are attempting to furnish. It at least gives us some general idea of 
the proportion of water, caseine and butter which has effected the highest 
results. 

The analysis of Mr. Hakding's cheese gives the following in the one 
hundred parts : 

Water 33.92 

Butter 33.15 

Caseine 28.12 

Milk sugar, luetic acid and extractive matter 00 96 

Mineral matter 3.85 

Total 100.00 

The 28.12 parts of caseine contain 21.50 parts of nitrogen, and of the 3.85 
parts mineral matter, 1.15 was common salt. It will be seen, then, that 
good cheese, properly cured, has about thirty-four jDer cent, of Avater, and less 
than one per cent, of milk-sugar, lactic acid, &c. 

From the analyses which I have seen of different samples of the best 
English and American cheese, when ripe, it appears that the proportion of 
water should not be above thirty-four per cent. Any considerable increase 
above this almost invariably indicates bad flavor. There is no doubt, a due 
proportion of the water in cheese imparts to it a smooth and apparently rich 
texture, and it is to this point manufacturers should direct their attention. 
When too much water is taken out of the curd, we have a dry, stiff cheese, 
the transformation of the caseine or curd being imperfect, and the cheese 
appears less rich than it really is. Any system of cheese-making, then, by 
which we may be able to judge the most accurately as to the amount of 
water to be retained in the curds, will be the most successful, other thino-s 
being equal. 

SALTY TASTE. 

In regard to the saline taste sometimes complained of in old cheese, 
otherwise rich and good. Dr. Voelckek attributes it to ammoniacal salts, 
developed during the ripening process. He says :— " During the ripening of 
the cheese, a portion of the caseine or. curd suffers decomposition, and is 
partially changed into ammonia ; the latter, however, does not escape, but 
combines with several fatty acids, formed in the course of time from the 
butter. Peculiar ammoniacal salts are thus produced, and these, like most 
other salts of ammonia, have a pungent, saline taste. The longer cheese is 
kept within reasonable limits, the riper it gets, and as it ripens, the propor- 
tion of ammoniacal salts, with this pungent, saline taste, increases. It can 
be readily shown that old cheese contains a good deal of ammonia, in the 
shape of ammoniacal salts. All that is necessary is to pound a piece with 
quick lime, when, on the addition of a little water, a strong smell of spirits 
of hartshorn will be developed. In well kept, sound old cheese, the ammonia 
is not free, but exists in the form of salts, whose base is ammonia, in combi- 
nation with butyric, caprinic, caprylic and other acids, generated under 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 429 

favorable circumstances by the fats of which butter consists. Ripe cheese, 
even if very old, but sound, instead of containing free ammonia, always 
exhibits a decidedly acid reaction, Avhen tested with blue litmus paper. 
Rotten cheese, on the other hand, is generally alkaline in its reaction, and 
contains free ammonia." 

KEEPING QUALITIES. 

I have alluded to some of the characteristics demanded in them, to suit 
the English taste. There is another requisite, which trade and our own 
interest imperatively demand : it is the production of cheese that is slow of 
decay — that will sustain its good qualities a long time ; one that can be kept, 
either at home upon the factory shelves, or in the hands of purchasers, with- 
out fear of deterioration or loss. English shippers and dealers have always 
complained of the early decay of American cheese, and the fear of loss from 
this source has had great inHuence upon the market. When considerable 
stocks have been accumulated, the dealer has been over-anxious to get rid 
of them, and has pushed them, at low pyces, upon the market, on the 
assumption that the loss from deterioration, by holding, would more than 
cover any prospective advance in price. Factories, too, have often pushed 
forward their goods on this account. It is true there has been great imj)rove- 
ment, during the last few years, in the keeping qualities of our cheese, but 
there is room for moi-e improvement, and no factory should make a pound 
of cheese that cannot be kept, without deterioration, at least several months. 
It would seem to be evident that the exceedingly fine aroma which obtains 
in the best samples of Stilton, Cheddar and Cheshire cheese, is secured, at 
least in part, by manufacturing perfectly pure milk, in good condition, at low 
temperature. 

THE CHIEF CHAKACTERISTICS OF STILTON 

are a peculiar delicacy of flavor, a delicious mellowness, and a great aptness 
to acquii'e a species of artificial decay, without which, to the somewhat 
vitiated taste of the lovers of Stilton cheese, as now eaten, it is not consid- 
ered of prime account. To be in good order, according to the present 
standard, it must be decayed, blue and moist. Considerable quantities of 
Stilton, however, are sold in London free from mold, and good samples have 
a peculiarly delicate flavor and delicious mellowness, preserving these quali- 
ties for one or two yeai's. Now the Stilton is set at a low temperature — 
about 78° — and after coagulation is perfected it is cut in blocks, and a short 
time afterwards it is lifted out carefully into a willow basket to drain, and 
then put into a small hoop and turned frequently, receiving no pressure 
except from its own weight. 

I do riot pi'opose to go into details of Stilton manufacture in this place 
since it is not adapted to our factoiy system : but I introduce the main 
feature to show in part the philosophy of cheese-making. Here, in this 
most delicious of all cheeses, in which there is an extra amount of cream, a 



430 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

very low temperature is employed, with scarcely any manipulation. The 
manipulations are not hastened, but the cheese is left, so to speak, to do its 
own work. The Stilton cheeses are thick but small, only weighing from six 
to eight pounds. Of course we could not make our large cheese in this way, 
as the whey would not readily separate and pass off. But it is a remarkable 
fact that these cheeses are capable of retaining a delicate flavor for a longp 
time. In all the finest English cheeses coming under my observation theB 
temperature for setting the milk ranged at about 78° to 82 '^, never above 
84°. It is undoubtedly a fact that if coagulation takes j^lace when the milk, 
is too warm it becomes too adhesive, and the oily parts of the milk, being] 
kept in solution, escape with the whey. 

THE AMERICAN AND CHEDDAR PROCESSES COMPARED. 

The American process of manufacturing cheese as now commonly prac- 
ticed, differs but little from the improved Cheddar process of England. The 
night's and morning's mess of milk mingled together are taken to make the 
cheese. One great feature in the Cheddar process is to understand pretty 
accurately the condition of the milk in regard to its approximate acidity at 
the time of commencing the operation of manufacturing. They prefer there- 
fore to have the milk in a condition to use sour whey at the time of adding 
the rennet. "When a large number of persons are delivering milk as at our 
factories, it is impossible to judge so well how far the milk has progressed 
toward sensible acidity, as in a single dairy where the milk is under the eye 
of the manufacturer from first to last. 

In the Cheddar practice the milk is set at a temperature of about 79° to 
82°, receiving sour whey with the rennet according to the condition of the 
milk. A quantity of rennet is added sufiicient to coagulate the mass in from 
forty to sixty minutes. When firm enough to break, the curd is cut across 
in checks. After it has stood from fifteen to twenty minutes for the whey to 
form, and the curd to acquire a firm consistency, the Cheddar dairymen com- 
mence breaking with a shovel breaker, which is similar in construction to our 
factory agitator. The curd is handled very carefully until the whole is 
minutely broken, and they insist that this part of the process shall be done 
without any additional heat. After breaking, heat is applied, and the tem- 
perature gradually raised to 98* or 100*, according to circumstances of 
weather, etc., the mass meanwhile being carefully stirred. It is then left at 
rest and only occasionally stirred, until a scarcely perceptible change toward 
acidity is indicated in the whey ; the whey is then immediately drawn and 
the curd heaped up in the vat to drain and develop the required acidity 
gradually. It remains in this condition for half an hour or more, the whey 
meanwhile flowing slowly from the heap, when it is taken out and' placed in 
the sink or cooler. It is then split by the hand into thin flakes and spread 
out to cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly acid smell, and is slightly 
sour to the taste. 



Praciical Dairy Husbandry. 431 

It is left here to cool for fifteen minutes, when it is turned over and left 
for the same length of time, or until it has the j^eculiar mellow or liakey feel 
desired. It is then gathered up and put to press for ten minutes, when it is 
taken out, ground in the curd-mill and salted at the rate of two pounds of 
salt to one hundred and twelve pounds of curd. It then goes to press and is 
kept under pressure two or three days. The curd when it goes to press 
has a temperature of 60 ° to 65 ° , and when in the sink it is preferred not to go 
below this point. A proper temperature is retained in the curd during the 
various parts of the process, during cool weather by throwing over it a thick 
cloth. Much of our factory cheese has been injured by being put to press at 
too high a temperature. The thermometer should always be used to determine 
the condition of the curd when put to press ; and there is no doubt but that 
the Cheddar dairymen have hit upon the proper temperature. 

Mr. Harding, the great exponent of this system in England, told me he' 
had made a great many experiments in this direction, and that a higher tem- 
perature than 75° when put to press was almost always attended with loss of 
flavor, undue fermentation, and, as a consequence, greater or less porosity. 
He claimed that the curd could not be properly broken at 90 ® or above, and 
that a better separation of the whey and condition of the curd was effected 
by breaking at 75° to 80°. 

What we are to learn by the Cheddar process, is not so much following 
out blindly all details, but seizing upon a few leading principles of the process 
and adapting them to our use. These princijDles may be briefly summed up 
as follows: 1st. Studying the condition of the milk. 2d. Setting at a tem- 
perature from 78° to 82°. 3d. Drawing the wey early. 4th. Exposing 
the curd longer to the atmosphere and allowing it to perfect its acidity after 
the whey is drawn. 5th. Putting in press before salting at a temperature of 
60° to 70°. 6th. Grinding in a cui'd-mill and then salting. These last two 
items are important, because you cannot regulate the salt accurately by guess, 
and can only get the right proportion by uniformity in the condition of the 
curd. The application of salt, too, at a higher temperature than 75° is 
claimed to be prejudicial. 

I am firmly of the opinion, not only from my observations abroad, but 
from my own experiments, that the exposure of the curd in small particles 
to the air is beneficial, and helps to secure a good flavor and mellowness of 
texture. When curds are exposed to the atmosphere the external parts 
become rapidly oxydized, which is seen by their heightened color. 

FLOATING CURDS. 

One of the troubles which cheese-makers have to contend with is a float- 
ing curd. It means tainted milk, putrefaction, fermentation, a most disagree- 
able customer, and one which no manufacturer cares to meet. There are 
various ways of treating floating curds, but the main points to be observed 
are, drawing the whey early, developing an acid, exposure of the curd to the 



432 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

atmosphere a long time, and grinding in a curd-mill. One experienced 
cheese-maker writes me as follows : 

" One morning in July last I noticed a peculiar odor in the milk which; 
was delivered at the factory. I pi'onounced it tainted. The weather was' 
warm and the milk from some of the dairies was quite near enough sour, 
beino- so far advanced as to require rather rapid handling, faster than would 
be profitable with milk in the proper condition. I exposed it to the air by 
stirring it and dipping it, until ready to add the coloring and rennet, which 
was done at a heat of 82°. 

"The curd did not seem to act right while cooking; it would not come 
down so as to present to the maker that feeling and appearance which indicate 
a good cheese. The curd came to the surface of the whey while it was 
cooking. The odor was so disagreeable that one of our hands could not bear 
to work over it. One individual who was present insisted that the curd was 
sour and the whey sweet, I could not see it so. I held it in the whey as 
long as I thought advisable, which I assure you was not any longer than was 
necessary to cook it fairly ; for I did not think tlie whey was improving it any. 
The heat must have been nearly to 100°, when I ran it into the curd sink, for 
I had been keeping up the heat hoping to cook it sufficiently. We stirred it 
a long while in the sink, opening the windows and doors of the work-room, 
in order to give it all the air possible. I salted it in the j^roportion of three 
pounds of salt to one thousand pounds of milk, and put it to press. After press- 
ing for perhaps an hour, turned and bandaged them, then pressed again, until 
the next morning, Avhen they were placed upon the shelves in the drying-room. 

" I saw by the next da^ that they were inclined to give me trouble. They 
commenced rising en masse, like a loaf of bread. They did not leak whey, 
but there seemed to be a sort of internal working, and Avhen pressed upon 
with the hand would emit a hissing sort of noise. I determined to experi- 
ment. I cut one into slices and ground it up in the curd-mill. The odor that 
had been present in the vat had not all left. I warmed a pailful of whey of 
the day before to 100° and poured it upon the curd. I kept the whey upon 
the curd but a short time, just long enough to warm it, say five minutes. I 
then added as much salt as I thought the whey had taken out, then pressed, 
turned and bandaged as before. When placed upon the shelf the next day it 
felt firm and had every appearance of lying quiet. I treated the other three 
in the same manner and with a similar result. We kept those cheeses until 
about forty days' old. They never raised in the least again. I called the 
attention of several buyers and professed judges of cheese to them, and they, 
without an exception, pronounced them ' all right.' They were firm, never 
showing a pore when tried ; still, they were not over hard. The odor had so 
much left them that our buyers were imable to detect it. Perhaps upon 
other occasions the same process may not prove as satisfactory as upon this. 
Be that as it may, I feel confident that I saved four cheeses, which promised 
to be a total loss." 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 433 

He adds, " That when the cheeses were cut open for grinding, they were 
very porous, presenting the appearance of a loaf of bread, which if possible, 
had been over-risen." 

MR. irons' process. 

Mr. Irons, a young Englishman, whom Mr. Harding of England sent to 
me in the spring of 1868, and who has been managing some factories at the 
West since that time, says he has tried various modes of treating floating 
curds, and finds by the following process that he is able to make from such 
curds a cheese of good texture and taste. 

When the appearance of the whey shows numerous air bubbles floating 
in, or forming by the slightest agitation of the finger, and also a kind of 
greasy feeling of the curd, all of which ai-e indications of an unusual fermen- 
tation, proceed with the process as at other times, only working a little 
slower. The temperature should not be raised above 100°. If you are in 
the habit of making coarse curds, then on this occasion they should be worked 
a little finer with the agitator. When the mass has been raised to the 
desired temperature the stirring should be continued for about half an hour. 
Then leave it to rest for a short time, or with only an occasional stirring. 
When you see the curds beginning to float upon the whey let them all come 
up, and then immediately draw the whey. The whey having been removed 
pack the curd in large heajis at the bottom of the vat, with a space down the 
middle for the whey to drain off, and which should be removed as fast as it 
gathers. When the curd has lain in this shaiDC for about fifteen minutes, or 
until strong enough to bear turning, the heaps should be turned bottom side 
up, and, if possible, without breaking the curd. 

Now, let it lie, till the acid is properly developed, which will be indicated 
by the odor when opening one of the heaps in the center, and it will have a 
kind of flaky appearance, or as some have it, a kind of grain. Then break 
the heaps into tliree or four pieces, and spread over the bottom of the vat to 
cool gradually. When the pieces have laid thus for about fifteen or twenty 
minutes take them out of the vat, put them in the sink and break them into 
small pieces, and stir so as to cool. When the temperature has been reduced 
to about 70° to 75°, grind in a curd-mill and salt at the rate of two and 
a-half pounds salt to one thousand (1,000) pounds of milk. It would be 
better to put the mass to press for about ten minutes before grinding, but 
when there is a large mass of curd, and time is wanting, the course above 
may be adopted. 

Mr. Ikons says he has under this treatment of floating curds, made them 
into good cheese, so good, indeed, that experienced cheese-dealers have not 
objected to their flavor, or even suspected that there had been any trouble 
with the curds more than ordinarily. The cheese, he adds, is of very solid 
texture, and no difficulty is had in curing, except the liability to check a little 
if care is not taken. 

Mr. Moon, manager of the North Fairfield Factory, gives the following 
28 



434 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

as his method of treating tainted milk and floating curds : — First, thorough 
Btirrino- and cooling of the milk at night. In the moi-ning do not begin to 
heat the milk until ready to heat rapidly, and then heat as quickly as possible, 
stirring the milk the while. Add an extra amount of rennet that the coagu- 
lation may be quite firm, cut and manipulate with unusual caution ; keep the 
whey drawn off as close as possible ; heat gradually but continually until the 
temperature of about 98° is attained, then, when sufficiently cooked, dip to 
the sink and wait for the developemcnt of the lactic acid, in more than the 
usual quantity ; salt and allow to stand exposed to the air from one to three 
hours, according as the milk was bad or very bad. 

" Frequently," he says, " the acid will be developed enough when dipped 
to the sink ; in that case salt as soon as drained ; stir the curd before and 
after salting, in order that it may not pack in the sink. Having been exposed 
to the air for the proper length of time, jDut to j^ress ; in the morning remove 
the hoop, and perforate the cheese in several places with a small wdre, in order 
to allow any gas to escape that may have been generated in the cheese during 
the night. Put to press again, and if possible, allow to press twenty-four 
hours longer, remove to the dry-house and treat like other cheese." 

Mr. Alexandee McAdam, of the Smith Creek Factory, N. Y., who has 
been very successful as a manufacturer of "fancy cheese," and whose cheese 
is well-known in the markets on account of its superior quality, writes me in 
a recent letter as follows : 

CAUSE OP FLOATING CURDS. 

"The immediate cause of floating curds is the presence in each particle or 
cube of an extraordinary number of the spores of a species of fungus, which 
generate a gas in the middle of each cube of curd at the time when the curd 
is in the whey at a temperature of from 80° to 96°, Avhen each cube of curd 
is expanded by this gas so much as to become lighter than its bulk of whey 
— there occurs a floating curd. 

" The reason why those spores are in so great abundance at times as to 
cause floating curds are two, viz. : First, diseased or fevered state of the cow 
before the milk is drawn from her. Second, improper handling of the milk 
after being drawn from the cow. In regard to the first reason, there are a 
great many cows slightly diseased or fevered, a few of the causes of which, are 
cows drinking stagnant, putrid or filthy water ; the eating of vegetation 
growing on ground saturated with such water ; cows inhaling the odor 
arising from rapidly decomposing matter ; cows in heat, or having been 
driven rapidly from the pasture ; or any state of the cow which causes the milk 
to be at a higher temperature than blood heat (98°) when drawn from her, 
which in a great many instances is the case, and it has been known to be as 
high as 105° when milked. Such milk, when it has been coagulated and 
heated, is almost certain to produce floating curds. 

" In the second place, when the milk has been improperly handled after 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 435 

being drawn from the cow. This is the case when any filth, cow manure, 
or other impurity drops into the milk during milking, or in its transit 
from the farm to the cheese factory, and which can never afterwards be 
wholly removed from it bypassing it even through the finest strainer; or 
when the milk has come into contact with any utensils or strainers which 
have not been thoroughly cleansed ; or when the milk has not been thoroughly 
ventilated before being shut up in almost air-tight vessels. These are some 
of the most frequent causes of floating curds. 

PREVENTION OF FLOATING CUEDS. 

" To px-event floating curds, the milk intended to be manufactured into 
cheese ought to be milked from cows that have access at all times to pure 
running water, and have no access at all to stagnant, filthy water, as cows 
will often prefer such filthy water to clean water (for reasons unknown). 
Every one of the cows of a dairy ought to be in perfect health, as one dis- 
eased cow's milk Avill taint the milk from the whole dairy. Dairy cows ought 
not to have access to weeds of any description, and ought to have plenty of 
shade trees in their pasture in warm weather, and when driven to and from 
their pastures they ought not to be urged faster than a slow walk, and before 
being milked they ought to be allowed to stand one hour in cool, airy stables 
at a distance from manure heaps or any decomposing matter. 

" After standing an hour the cows ought to be milked with the most scru- 
pulous cleanliness, and the milk strained. It must tlien be immediately venti- 
lated by exposure to the atmosphere to allow the animal odor to escape, and 
cooled. But cooling without ventilation is almost useless, or as some assert, 
worse than useless. The milk being cooled and ventilated, it can then be 
moved to the factory, and will arrive there in good condition. All the uten- 
sils with which the milk comes in contact ought to be thoroughly cleaned 
with warm water, soap and a brush, and afterwards scalded with boiling 
water or steam. All these particulars being attended to there will be no 
danger of floating curds. 

THE EEMEDY FOR FLOATING CURDS. 

"When the milk which has to be manufactured into cheese emits the 
offensive odors which usually come from tainted milk, it is reasonably certain 
the curd after coagulation will either float or require the same treatment as 
if it did float. In such a case enough of rennet must be added so as to cause 
coagulation in thirty minutes or less. Then, after the cm-d is sufficiently cut, 
the mass of curd and whey must be heated quickly to a temperature of 96°, 
and so allowed to remain until acid is slightly perceptible to the smell or 
taste, the whey must then be separated from the curd, and the curd allowed 
to take on considerable more acid. The exact pitch to which the acid should 
be raised at this time can only be learned by experience ; when this has been 
attained the curd should be then ground and salted according to the Cheddar 
process, which is becoming too common to need explanation. After the curd 



436 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

is salted it should be thoroughly ventilated by repeated stirring and turning 
over before being j^ut to press. The amount of salt to be used should be 
the same as when the curd is perfect. The reason that more rennet is required 
for floating curd is because such curd has to be made sooner than usual, and 
would take longer to cure if only the same amount of rennet was used. And 
the reason it is heated quickly is to induce the acid to develop sooner. 

" A strictly fine-flavored or good-keeping cheese can not be made from 
floatino- curds, but still when properly handled a very fair, merchantable 
article can be obtained, the only fault being insipidity and lack of the fine 
nutty aroma so highly prized by the dealers in and consumers of all kinds of 
high-priced cheese. The reason that this aroma is lost in floating curds is 
because so much acid has to be introduced into the curd to kill the taint or 
bad smell. Kow, this acid also destroys the finest of the aroma, which is the 
most volatile and easily destroyed in either butter or cheese." 

TKEATMENT OF rLOATING CURDS. 

In the treatment of floating curds, a mill for grinding the curds renders 
very important aid. By grinding, the particles of curd are more minutely 
broken than it is easy to do by hand, and the breaking liberates not only the 
gases, but, by a free exposure of the particles to the air, the ofiensive odor 
passes off, and fermentation is checked. In some cases, even after the 
cheeses have been removed from the press to the curing room, and then 
begun to huff and behave badly, by cutting them up and passing through a 
curd mill, warming with whey at a temperature of 98°, and then draining, 
salting and pressing, no further trouble has been given, the cheese turning 
out of fair quality. As more or less trouble is had every year, from tainted 
milk and floating curds, suggestions as to their management will be of 
important aid to the cheese manufacturer. 

MANUFACTURING FROM SMALL QUANTITIES OF MILK. 

Where only one vat is used, I should always prefer the portable vat, with 
heater attached. It is quite as convenient, and much less expensive, not 
only in the original outlay, but in the cost of running, than the steam boiler 
and vat separated, like those in use in many of the New York factories. In 
a small factory, where there is no probability of running more than two vats, 
and where part of the time only one is used, I should still prefer the " porta- 
ble " or " self-heater," as less expensive, while, as to the management of 
heat, some of these self-heating vats are as perfect as anything yet brought 
out. So far as the manufacture of cheese is concerned there is nothing better 
than to heat with hot water, if the arrangements are such as to be convenient, 
and the heat under control. The advantages of a steam boiler are, that the 
boiler is in a separate room by itself, and all litter, dirt, smoke, &c., are con- 
fined to that apartment, and do not get " mixed up " in the milk room, while 
the heat is applied simply by turning a faucet in the conducting pipe. Then, 
again, the heat can be turned off in a moment. On these accounts many old 



Practical Dairy Husbandry, 437 

factorymen prefer steam boilers to the " self-heaters." The Ralph, the 
Millar and the Burkell heaters are good, so far as their arrangements for 
heating and manufacturing are concerned. They take but very little fuel. 

SOUR WHEY. 

The use of sour whey in cheese-making must be regulated according to 
the condition of the milk. If the milk has made progress toward acidity, so 
that it Avill be properly developed at the close of the j^rocess of cheese- 
making, the sour whey is not needed. But in cool weather, when the milk 
has been brought down to a low temperature, an acid condition of the curds 
is not easily developed, at least during the ordinary time for conducting the 
process of cheese-making. Sour Avhey, under such circumstances, is often 
used with great advantage. In the spring of the year, when the cows are 
" between hay and grass," it is sometimes quite difficult for the cheese-maker 
to turn off a nice quality of cheese. The curds are often run up too sweet, 
and the consequence is a soft, spongy product, containing a superabundance 
of whey which has not been properly separated, and could not be expelled 
while the cheese was in press. This could have been remedied by a proper 
application of sour ivhey. 

At cheese factories there is not usually that necessity for using sour whey 
as at farm dairies, because the milk, from cartage and other causes, has gen- 
erally progressed further toward acidity, when cheese-making commences, 
than it would had the milk been kept and made up at the farm dairy. But, 
though the necessity for using sour whey may not be so great at the factory 
as at the farm, there are times when it can be employed in factory manufac- 
ture to very great advantage. 

At the farm dairy, M^hen the night's milk has been cooled down to 45°, 
we should say that the sour whey could be used ; for, if all utensils have been 
kept scrupulously clean, the milk will be very sweet, and will not readily 
develop the desired change in proper time, or during the time usually 
employed in the process of manufacture into cheese, unless so treated. Sour 
whey cannot be used at random, but in the hands of skillful cheese-makers it 
produces the very best results. 

cooling the morning's mess or milk at farm dairies. 

As to the question of removing the animal heat from the morning's milk 
for farm dairies, when the night's milk has been cooled, as described above, 
it is not usually considered important to do so. If the morning's milk is to 
be carted to the factory, there is no question but it should be thoroughly 
cooled before putting in the cans, or as soon as may be after being drawn 
from the cow. And I have no doubt, for private dairies, the milk for cheese- 
making, both morning and evening mess, is improved by being divested of 
animal heat. In the private dairy, however, it must be observed, the 
quantity of milk to be handled is comparatively small. The morning's milk 



438 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

is added by degrees, or only as fast as drawn from the cow, and is at least 
partly cooled by coming in contact with the night's milk. And, again, the 
vat being open so as to allow free exposure to the air, while the process of 
cheese-making is commenced at once, all would seem to indicate that a 
special cooling of the morning's milk might, perhaps, be dispensed with. If, 
however, convenient apparatus be had for cooling the morning's milk as 
soon as drawn from the cow, so that it could be readily done, without loss 
of time or causing much trouble, I should do so, since I am of the opinion a 
more delicately flavored cheese would result from cooling and aerating both 
the night's and morning's mess of milk. But without apparatus or conven- 
iences, it would not, perhaps, be advisable to spend much time and trouble 
in attempting to cool the morning's milk for farm dairies. 

COLOPaJVG CHEESE. 

An attempt has been made, from time to time, to induce factories to 
abandon the use of coloring matter in cheese. The fact that annatto (the 
only coloring matter that should ever be used for this purpose) adds nothing 
to the flavor or nutrition of cheese, would seem to favor the discontinuance 
of a practice which is troublesome, attended with expense, and sometimes 
injurious on account of the adulterations of annatto with red lead and other 
poisonous compounds. Pure annatto is a harmless vegetable substance, pre- 
pared from the seeds of a tree {Bixa orelkma), and when used in the ordi- 
nary way for coloring cheese is in no way injurious. Its employment for 
this purpose comes down to us from the mother country. I do not know 
when or by whom the practice was first inaugurated, but it is of ancient 
date, and its object nmst have been to deceive consumers, by giving them 
the idea that the cheese was made from a very rich quality of milk. And 
that impression now generally prevails among the uninitiated. So much has 
the imagination to do in controlling human action, that I have seen poor, 
skim-milk cheese highly colored, preferred and purchased instead of a rich, 
nice-flavored, pale cheese, -both standing on the counter, and offered at the 
same price. Color, therefore, has an important influence with some people, 
and It is useless for the dairyman to " run his head" against this prejudice, 
unless he chooses to have his pockets depleted by lower sales. 

It is true, in some of the English markets, like Manchester, for instance, 
pale cheese is m favor, and finds a better price than the colored article ; but 
the London trade insists upon color, and as it is willing to pay for it, Amer- 
ican dairymen must for the present submit. Some people think that, by 
abandomng the use of annatto, we can correct the English prejudice for 
colored cheese, and thereby benefit all parties. It would be an absurd and 
tutiJe effort on our part, and would simply give the English dairymen addi- 
tional advantage m their own markets ; for you cannot force people to pur- 
chase what they do not want, however excellent your argument may be 
against their prejudices. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 439 

method of pbepaeixg basket annatto for use. 

Some of the methods employed by old and experienced dairymen for 
preparing annatto for coloring cheese are as follows : 

First Recipe. — Dissolve six pounds concentrated potash and one pound 
saltpeter in five gallons of warm water ; then add thirty gallons cold water, 
put in as much choice annatto as the liquid will dissolve, heat gently to a 
boil ; put into a cask, and store in a cool place. 

Second Recipe. — Dissolve four pounds potash in one-half barrel of water ; 
put in as much pure annatto as the liquid will cut. The mixture need not 
be boiled. 

Third Recipe. — Take four pounds of best annatto, two pounds concen- 
trated potash, five ounces saltpeter, one and a-half pounds sal-soda, and five 
gallons boiling water. Put the ingredients into a tub, and pour on the 
boiling water. 

The annatto should be inclosed in a cloth, and, as it dissolves, squeeze it 
through the cloth into the liquid. About two ounces of this mixture is 
sufiicient for one hundred pounds of curd in summer. 

EECIPE FOE PEEPARING ANIfATTO USED AT BROCKETt's BRIDGE FACTORY. 

To eight pounds crude annatto, add three pounds Babbitt's concentrated 
potash ; place in a cask, pour on boiling water, and stir frequently until all 
is dissolved. Water is then added to make it sufficiently diluted, so that a 
pint of the liquid will color four thousand pounds of milk. In coloring 
cheese, the best way is to fix upon the desired shade by trial (marking the 
quantity of liquid used), and after that is known the same proportion will 
give color that is uniform. 

annattoine. 

Preparations of liquid annatto have been made and sold from time to time, 
some of which, like the Nichols & English preparation, have acquired a 
hio-h reputation. The foreign liquid annattoes, however, are expensive, and 
their high cost has operated very much against their use among the factories. 
Recently a new preparation of annatto has been brought out by G. De Cor- 
dova, under the name of annattoine, or dry extract of annatto. The coloring 
material, which lies wholly on the surface of the seeds, is separated and pre- 
pared by Cordova by an improvement on the La Blond and Vauquelin 
theories. The latter asserts that boiling injures the color, and as this has 
been clearly proven, Cordova reduces the precipitation to powder instead of 
boiling to a paste. In the spring of 1870 I made tests with the annattoine 
in coloring both butter and cheese, and found that it gave a clear and beauti- 
ful shade, equal to any preparation that I had seen, but on dissolving or cutting 
the annattoine in the usual manner I found the liquor on standing was inclined 
to form a coagulum. Soon after this time Mr. D. H. Burrell of Little Falls 
entered upon a series of experiments for the purpose of overcoming this diffi- 
culty. In this he has been entirely successful, and we now have a perfect color- 



440 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

ing material, free from any injurious adulterations, and a preparation which 
has given satisfaction to both factories and shippers. Indeed, some of the latter 
have expressed the opinion that cheese colored with this preparation retains 
flavor better and for longer periods than cheese colored with the common 
basket annatto. The annattoine is largely coming into use among the facto- 
ries, and is superseding all other preparations. Prof. Caldwell, who has 
made an analysis of the annattoine, certifies as to its purity or freedom from 
deleterious adulterations, and we are therefore enabled to obtain a reliable 
coloring material at moderate cost. 

Mr. Buerell's recipe for cutting the annattoine is as follows : — Put two 
pounds of annattoine in four gallons of clear, cold water, and let it stand in 
this state one day, stirring thoroughly, meantime, so as to perfectly dissolve 
the annattoine. Then put two pounds strongest potash, and one pound 
sal-soda (carbonate of soda) in three gallons of cold water. When this is 
perfectly dissolved and settled, pour off the clear liquor, and mix the two 
preparations together. Let this compound stand two or three days, until the 
annattoine is cut or dissolved perfectly by the potash, stirring occasionally 
meantime. Use about a teacupful for a thousand pounds of milk. Do not 
mix with the rennet, but put it in a little milk and then mix in the mass of 
milk in the vats by stirring it in thoroughly, just before the rennet is used. 
If in a day or two after the preparation is made the annattoine does not seem 
to be perfectly cut, so that specks can be seen, it is certain that the potash 
was not strong enough. Adding more of a stronger solution of the potash 
will remedy the trouble. When annattoine is used for coloring butter a 
portion of the prepared liquor is added to the cream at the commencement 
of churning. It gives a very rich color, and may be used in winter-made 
butter, often with advantage. 

CUTTING THE CUEDS. 

The steel curd-knife now in general use was invented some dozen years 
ago or thereabouts, by a Herkimer county dairyman. The old-fashioned curd- 
knife was of wood, a single blade, and a rude aifair. The curds were cut 
into large blocks, and all the subsequent breaking was done with the hands. 
This necessitated a good deal of labor, and unless the curds were very care- 
fully handled, there was a considerable loss of cheese. The first improvement 
in this class of implements originated also in Herkimer, and consisted of a 
triangular iron frame, strung with brass wire. It was made of diflferent 
sizes to correspond with the cheese-tub, half its diameter in length, so that 
going round with the breaker in the operation, no section of the curds would 
be broken twice. This was a great improvement over the wooden knife and 
hand breaking ; but after a while it was found objectionable, as the tender 
curds were torn and mashed by the frame of the breaker, and by the points 
where the wires crossed each other in forming the checks. 

The next improvement was a breaker of tin, formed into checks, so as to 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. . 441 

cut the curd into long square strips as the instrument was pushed down to 
the bottom of the vat. I made some experiments with the tin and wire 
breakers at an early day, and found there was a saving in product by using 
the tin. When the gang of steel knives was invented for cutting the curds 
into perpendicular columns, further experiments were made, and a decided 
advantage in product was found to result from the use of sharp, cuttino- 
blades over the tin cutter, which did not divide the curd as smoothly as the 
polished steel blades. These experiments, extended over a considerable 
period and conducted with care, convinced me that the first breakino- of the 
tender curds should be done with sharp cutting blades ; since not one cheese- 
maker in a hundred will use sufficient care in breaking Avith the hands to 
avoid the loss that can be saved by the use of the steel knives, to say nothing 
of the labor and time gained by the knives over hand breaking. If it be 
admitted that these shai'p, polished steel blades are better for breakino- the 
curds in their tender state than the hands, or indeed than any device that 
tears the mass into particles, that bruises them or presses out the oily portion, 
then the whole of the breaking should be done with knives. 

The use of horizontal knives is only of recent introduction among the 
factories of New York. The perpendicular blades referred to above left the 
curds in cubical columns, which were to be in some way broken up, and it 
was done either by the hands, by an agitator, or by other imperfect means. 
Some of the best English cheese-makers use what is called the shovel-breaker 
for working or breaking the curds after the first cutting. It is of heavy 
wire, something in general form like a shovel, and attached to a long handle. 
They claim that in using this the curd splits apart in grains naturally, and 
hence the shovel breaker, skillfully used, is the best implement for the pur- 
pose that has yet been invented. As, until quite recently, they knew nothing 
of the operations of the American knives, and as their product from a given 
quantity of milk is less than that turned ofi" by skillful American manufac- 
turers, it is evident they are not competent, at present, to pass upon the 
merits of this improved American implement. 

In the best English methods of cheese-making, as well as in the best 
American processes, it is deemed important that the breaking should be done 
when the curds are young and before additional heat is applied. All cheese- 
makers agree that any rough handling of curds at this early stage must be 
attended with loss. But if we can have an implement or implements that 
will pass through the curds perpendicularly and horizontally, separating the 
mass into parts of the desired size, and doing the work without any undue 
agitation or bruising of the mass, a great desideratum, it would seem, is 
reached. The perpendicular and horizontal curd-knives when used in con- 
nection with each other do this most effectually. The horizontal knives cut 
the long, perpendicular blocks of curd into small pieces of uniform size, 
leaving the mass completely broken up. 

I experimented with the horizontal knives long before they were brought 



442 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

out or used in tlie dairies of New York. The knives were made expressly 
for my experiments by Mr. Otsten of Little Falls, who had proposed at the 
time to take out a patent upon them. He did not do so, and the principle 
suggested itself to others, and is now adopted at factories. 

In a recent conversation with Mr. Davis, who owns and operates a fac- 
tory in Herkimer, IST. Y., he stated that he found from experiments that a 
considerable gain Avas effected in the quantity of cheese by the use of the 
horizontal knives, and that by their use also the quality of his cheese was 
greatly improved. Mr. Davis is a manufacturer of experience, and his cheese 
has a high reputation for excellence, bringing a high price in the markets. 
Others make similar statements. 

From what has been said it will be seen that in factories of any consider- 
able size, the horizontal knives, in connection with the others, save during the 
season a large amount of labor, while the work is better performed than by 
operating on the old plan, as every portion of the mass is divided in i^ieces 
of uniform size. The object of cutting or breaking the curds is to favor the 
expulsion of whey ; hence, when the mass is broken up into pieces all of the 
same size, the progress and condition of the curds from time to time are more 
uniform in all their parts ; and this is an important point Avhich many cheese- 
makers overlook in their operations. The principle to be observed is to 
treat every portion of the curd alike, so far as possible, in all its manipula- 
tions, and then Ave get a product upon Avhich fermentation during the curing 
process Avill go on evenly, and good flavor is more readily secured, than Avhen 
the particles of the curd are unlike, or not in the same condition. 

USE OF HEAT IST CHEESE MAKING. 

The term " cooking the curd " in cheese making is a misnomer. It con- 
A-eys to the mind a Avrong impression and leads many astray. To make 
cheese properly, neither the milk nor the curds should be " cooked." The 
more you approximate to the cooking process the more you injure the 
cheese. Animal bodies are not cooked at a temperature of blood heat. As 
a rule in cheese making, no part of the process requires a temperature above 
blood heat. One hundred degrees is the maximum temperature that can be 
employed Avith safety. This is tAvo degrees above blood heat, and is admis- 
sible only Avhen heat is liable to pass off rapidly, and for the purpose of 
holding the mass at 98°. Heat is constantly passing off from the whey and 
curds, and the loss is more rapid Avhen the temperature of the surrounding 
atmosphere is low. It is more rapid AA^hen a small quantity of milk is used than 
Avhen a large quantity is collected together, hence we sometimes employ a 
temperature one or tAvo degrees above blood heat in the process of solidifying 
the curds, in order to meet this loss of heat. It is a well recognized fact in 
cheese making that fine quality and delicate flavor cannot be secured when 
high heat is used in manipulating the curds. The best cheese are made at 
low temperatures, and when dairymen fancy the curd must be cooked to 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 443 

preserve it, they have an erroneous idea of the true principles of clieese 
making. 

The raanuiacture of cheese is in part a chemical process. We have a 
material composed of various constituents, and the art is to separate these 
constituents, selecting those required to form cheese and expelling the others. 
Milk as it comes from the cow is properly prepared for food. It needs no 
further cooking to be assimilated, and what the cheese maker Avants is to 
extract the caseine and butter, getting rid of the water and reducing the mass 
to a solid. The butter is not improved by cooking, neither is the caseine, and 
hence, as we find in practice, the best cheese is made when neither the milk 
nor the curds have been subjected to so high a heat as would cook them. 
After the curds are broken up we use heat for the purpose of expelling the 
whey. A change is constantly going on. The heat assists in developing an 
acid, which causes the curds to contract, expelling the whey. The process 
of separating the whey should be slow, and the whey should flow away 
gradually, otherwise there is a loss of oily particles. The butter is contained 
in the shells of caseine and is not acted upon by rennet. If the contraction 
of the caseine is rapid, the oily globules are forced out Avith the whey, instead 
of being retained and amalgamated with the mass, and you have a tough, 
leathery cheese. Milk which is exposed to the atmosphere and warmth 
begins to put on an acid condition as soon as drawn from the cow. In cheese 
making we want to carry this acid just far enough to expel the surplus whey, 
retaining the butter and a certain amount of moisture. If Ave stop short of 
the required point, too much whey Aviil be retained and cannot be pressed out. 

When the cheese is put upon the shelf this pent up whey decomposes, 
becomes acid, and jjarts from the caseine, and we have a leaky cheese. If 
the cheese is kept in a Avarm place and the whey is soon expelled, the cheese, 
though defective in flavor, may pass as second rate ; but if the whey cannot 
find an exit, it soon becomes sour and putrid, and the cheese, in consequence, 
is positively bad. On the other hand, Avhen the acid is carried too far, the 
curds part with too much moisture and Ave have a hard, dry cheese. What 
is understood, then, by the terra " cooking the curd," is the application of a 
gentle heat for the i:)urpose of developing a certain degree of acidity, that 
the whey may properly 2:>art from the solids, a sufficient amount being 
retained to carry on the process of fermentation Avhen the cheese goes into 
the curing-room. It is very difficult to carry this acid to the proper j^oint 
while the whey is in the vat. It is preferable, therefore, to draw the Avhey 
as soon as acidity becomes perceptible to the taste or smell, and allow a 
further development in the curds after the Avhey is drawn. 

A good many cheese makers who get the idea that curds must be cooked 
like a piece of meat, often spoil their cheese by applying heat too rapidly and 
running the mass up at too high a temperature. They do not seem to under- 
stand the leading principle of this part of the process, which is a slow 
development of acid in the curds. Instead of heating gradually and watching 



b5s 

444 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

for tliis development, they push the heat, thinking they can effect their object 
in cooking ; the consequence is, an inferior product, destitute of that quality 
and flavor that the market now demands. 



VIEVrS OF AIR. FISH ON HEAT IJT CHEESE MAKING. 

In discussing the question of heat in cheese making, Mr. A. L. Fish of 
Herkimer, N. Y., well known as a distinguished practical cheese manufac- 
turer, as well as one of the early Avriters on dairy farming, has recently 
presented the following as his matured views on the subject of heat, and they 
deserve attention. He says:— "In contemplating the agency of heat in 
making and curing cheese, we are led to consider that cheese has a physical 
constitution, like other bodies, subject to growth and decay, that require a list 
of substances, in their formation, which is assimilated by special agencies and 
brought to an equipoise ; in other words, brought into such a condition that 
opposing forces balance each other equally. Such a condition we denominate 
the constitution of animate and inanimate bodies. The condition or power 
to hold an equipoise or equilibrium of opposing forces, determines the 
liability to slow or more speedy decay and dissolution. I have hinted the 
capacity of heat to prevent and destroy consolidation; also, its indispensable 
agency in inducing relation and union of extraneous matter in forming solids. 
Its most judicious appliance in cheese making, where it is required to serve 
a double purpose, is the question to be discussed. First, what is a proper 
temperature to apply to the fluid mass (milk), in bringing it to condition 
most favorable for the aid and action of rennet in separating and dispelling 
such a portion of fluid j^arts as desirable, and no more, and why ? My answer 
is, not exceeding 98°, because that is the point nature has fixed to sustain 
the most healthy and active condition in the animal organism. Hence, a 
higher temperature weakens the action of the rennet in bringing the mass to 
a unity. Any excess of heat applied to a part unfits it for a union with other 
parts. Solids are formed by cohesive attraction, which draws particles of 
matter of a sameness together. Any agency or condition that makes these 
unlike, prevents a perfect union. In cheese, it is manifest in swelling after 
being pressed, or by a rough, sticky, or crackly surface, and a lack of close 
adhesiveness of the meat of the cheese, which indicate that the agencies used 
in forming its constitution have not been equipoised in the process of manu- 
facture. Such a condition involves the question, which of the agencies used 
is in fault ? 

INJUDICIOUS USE OF HEAT. 

" Some will say weak rennet, premature acidity, putrefactive fermenta- 
tion from some unknown cause, &c. ; but few seem to appreciate that an 
injudicious use of heat may be a fruitful cause, while a proper use might be 
a preventive. I trust all practical cheese makers will agree with us in the 
assertion that curd having been exposed to 140° heat, and mixed with other 
curd not exposed to over 100°, will not make a good cheese; if so, does it 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 445 

not follow logically, that any portion of the milk or curd exposed to that 
degree of high heat, will not unite harmoniously with other portions exposed 
to much less heat ? If such a varied condition is admitted to he wrong, the 
next question is, do we practice it, and if so, what is a remedy ? From my 
observations in the usual mode of managing heat in milk and curd, and 
curino--rooms, I am convinced that sufficient care is not taken to suppress the 
action of heat when less is needed ; hence a large proportion of the imperfec- 
tions of our factory cheese is traceable to an injudicious management of heat. 
In explanation, I will address myself to the patrons of cheese factories first, 
because with them lies the first practical remedy, as they have the ability to 
suppress the action of heat upon the milk before it reaches the factorymen, 
by stirring and cooling it immediately after it is drawn from the cows, which 
should always be done to guard against the tendency of heat to induce acidity 
and putrescence. If the habit of thus cooling the milk to a low temperature 
was universal among dairymen, it would result in a profit that is now lost to 
all interested. The advantages would be more pounds and better quality of 
cheese from a given amount of milk, because the manufacturer would not be 
compelled to use means to hasten the separation of fluid portions of milk 
from the caseine too rapidly, which is always wasteful. 

BEST MODE OF APPLYING HEAT. 

" In considering the best mode of applying heat to the mass of milk or 
curd, I shall not favor or discard any patent or fixture now used for that 
purpose, but will lay down as a practical rule (and would invite the attention 
of skilled mechanics to it) that an apparatus or fixture by which heat is 
imparted or conveyed to the mass, the mildest and most uniformly to every 
part, and having otherwise the most perfect control of heat, is to be preferred, 
because a uniform low temperature conveyed to every part and particle of 
the mass, is the principle relied on to preserve a perfect affinity or sameness 
of condition. To insure the most perfect cheese, the less antagonism induced 
in the process of manufacture the more perfect cheese will be attained. Con- 
veying heat by any means into a thin sheet or volume of water contained 
between the outer and inner vat I consider injudicious, because there is not 
water enough to soften the heat before it comes in contact with the inner vat 
containing the milk or curd. I am not able to understand how a large vat 
of milk or curd can be heated by discharging steam or boiling water into a 
thin sheet of water between vats Avithout some portions of it coming in 
contact with a surface heated to a point that Avill melt the buttery globules 
and otherwise imfit it to harmonize with other portions not so exposed. I 
have frequently examined the heated surface of inner vats, and found it so 
heated as to burn my flesh, and an oily substance floating on the whey, and 
clots of curd resting on the overheated surface melted together, and I did 
not Avonder that cheese made with such practice got out of flavor and 
became unsalable. 



'^^S Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

GUARD AGAINST OVERHEATING. 

" As a guard against thus overheating I would suggest a widening and 
enlargement of the heating medium between the vats, so that the heat con- 
veyed through it will be softened and equalized before coming in contact 
with the inner vat. It should be held in view by the vat builder, that the I 
wider the space between the points of discharging heat, and the vat containing 
the milk or curd to be hot, the softer and mere uniform will be the effect of 
heat, and the less liability to a deranged constitution in the cheese. When 
heat and rennet in their joint action are supposed to have dispelled a desired 
portion of the fluid of milk, it is essential to arrest uniformly their further 
progress through the whole mass to preserve an affinity of the parts to be 
pressed into cheese. This should not be done too suddenly before adding 
salt, as a sudden chill of the curd would cause it to reject the effect of salt 
to properly season the curd, which, while warm, has a tendency to expel 
animal odors if thoroughly stirred in cooling. After being salted warm, and 
packed, and covered to steep for ten minutes, then if well stirred, and cooled 
to 80° before putting it in pr.'ss hoops, the action of the heat and rennet are 
so checked as to give the new agent (salt) control of opposing forces in the 
process of curing. The cooler the curing-room is kept, the less salt is required 
to preserve cheese from taint, and the less salt used the earlier the maturity 
of cheese. The proper construction of the curing-room is essential to a 
proper control of heat in process of curing. 

DANGER OF HIGH HEAT. 

" The danger of high heat is not past till cheese is ripened for market A 
perfectly made cheese is often spoiled by too much and uneven heat in curing. 
A steady, even temperature should be kept, not exceeding 70°, with free 
ventilation at bottom and top of the room, so arranged that the outer air 
may be let in at pleasure at the bottom or near the floor below the cheese 
and pass out through draft tubes at the top of the room through the center 
which should be made to be closed when a draft is not needed to carry off 
surplus heat or dampness in the room, or for changing the air. 

HEAT IN CURING-ROOMS. 

" Curing-rooms built tight with six inches space for air between inner and 
outer ceiling with tubes six inches square passing through to the open air at 
the outer end, made to close at pleasure at the inside to reject too much air 
placed once in ten feet on all sides of the room near the floor, with draft tubes 
twelve inches square once in ten feet through the center of the top of the 
room, will afford a sufficient circulation of air at all times in the largest sized 
rooms; the air chamber at the side and over the top of the room protects it 
from sudden effects of external heat. The upper floor or ceiling should be 
covered with sawdust or fine shavings, to prevent concentration of heat from 
above. No more windows should be used than are needed to give sufficient 
light, as they are seldom if ever needed for air. With such ventilation and 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 447 

construction of the curing-room, as described, I have found no difficulty in 
keeping any desired temperature down to 70°. If a succession of extreme 
heat is raising the temperature above a desired point, it may be checked by 
closing tlie ventilatmg tubes when the air without is warmer than desired, 
and placing ice in the room on a drainer over a tub or box to catch the water 
as the ice dissolves." 

DR. wight's views. 

In a recent discussion before the National Dairymen's Club, Dr. Wight, 
of the Whitesboro Factory, said : — " If the milk tends to acidity, less heat and 
more rennet should be used; if the milk should be tainted the converse 
would be the treatment, viz., more heat and less rennet. I have observed 
that the slight difference of not more than two degrees in warming the curd 
will at times make one or two cents per pound difference in the price of the 
cheese when sold, all other conditions being apparently the same. I have also 
noticed that when green cheese is exposed to too low a temperature in the 
early stages of curing, it invariably injures the texture, flavor and general 
quality of the product during all the future stages of curing. In fact, T firmly 
believe that if the milk should constantly be kept at a proper temperature, 
and the curing-rooms be kept at a temperature neither too low nor too high — 
all of which is barely and simply a work of art entirely under our own control 
— I firmly believe, I say, that these conditions being constantly and rigidly 
observed, we may readily save all that depreciation in the quality and price 
of cheese which now invariably takes place during the heat of summer ; 
losing to the dairyman seldom less than three, and frequently five and six 
cents jDer pound. With the temperature of our milk and our manufactories 
kept at a sufficiently low degree during the months of June, July and August, 
we may preserve the cheese made during these months for the fall trade, and 
thus realize an equal, if not a higher price for them than we now do for our 
best fall cheese. 

warming curing-rooms by steam. 

" I Avill close with a few suggestions about the best mode of presei'ving 
the most equable and proper temperatures in our curing-houses. Thorough 
ventilation being premised, I would Avarm the rooms by steam pipes and cool 
them by the admission of cold air from an ice-house, keeping the temperature 
as near 70° as may be, equable throughout the building, and a little moist 
rather than too dry. By strict attention to these few things much improve- 
ment may be made in the quality and profits of our products." 

Mr. Alexander McAdam, the very successful manufacturer of the Smith 
Creek Factory, said, "In making cheese now (very early in spring) we are 
making from milk three messes of which are skimmed and one new. When 
skimmed the milk is placed in a warm place where the temperature is adapted 
for the cream rising. Set at eighty, and coagulated sufficient to cut in thirty 
minutes, it commences to thicken in fifteen minutes. He used extra rennet 
for skim-milk cheese. He heated it slowly to eighty-eight. Sometimes in 



448 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

cold weather the milk is very sweet and it may lie five or six hours in the 
whey. He meant to keep the temjDerature about eiglity-eio-ht. 

TEMPERATURE WHEN ONE MESS IS SKIMMED. 

" When the weather becomes warmer he will use the milk with one mess 
skimmed, and then the temperature would be at eighty-two and heat up to 
ninety-two and keep to this temperature. This milk would require thirty-five 
minutes to coagulate. He was accustomed to have coagulation occur sooner 
than some factories, as some let it run an hour or even an hour and ten 
minutes. By scalding as low as eighty-eight, the curd keeps soft and the 
acid is developed before the curd becomes solid. He used more rennet, less 
salt and less heat when making skim-milk cheese than without skimmino- the 
milk. The salt is applied upon the slightest appearance of the acid. He used 
it at the rate of one and one-half pounds of salt to the thousand pounds of 
milk. The appearance of the cheese after coming from the press must be the 
guide to the temperature and according to the appeai-ance of the cheese is 
determined the place upon the shelves. The curd should be put to press as 
soon as convenient after grinding, and before it gets too cool to face good. 

MANAGEMENT WHEN FAILING TO PACE. 

" If it failed to face, he used hot water and hot cloths imder the follower 
and hot water upon the press board. If too much rennet was used the curd 
would be rather slimy and it Avould not unite as well, but if the rennet was 
sweet the taste Avould not be aflfected. He thought if too much rennet was 
used some of the excess would be held at least mechanically in the curd and 
would appear in the color. 

TEMPERATURE FOR WHOLE MILK. 

" He used with all new milk in spring manufacture a temperature of eighty- 
two, and heat to ninety-four, and in curing he would not use over sixty-five 
in the dry-house — such a handling would produce a fine-flavored cheese. The 
action of heat facilitates the action of the rennet. He would use more heat 
after applying the rennet. As a general thing he did not think two or three 
degrees in temperature would make a great difference in the price of the cheese 
when made. He thought time would modify the slight excess of temperature. 
He would heat whole milk up to ninety-six in the summer time." 

ADVANTAGES OF A CELLAR UNDER CHEESE FACTORIES. 

Mr. McAdam spoke of a cheese factory which had a good cellar under 
it. He said "In the summer time this cellar could be used with great advan- 
tage as a curing-room. And in the spring and fall the cellar could be used 
for a making-room, and the curing done above. 

HOW IS THE RIPENING OP CHEESE AFFECTED BY THE MODE OP MANU- 
FACTURE ? 

" This subject is quite important, as it is often necessary to manufacture 
cheese that will ripen very quickly. When the market is declining, to have 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 449 

as many of them as possible fit for sale, and consequently bring a liiglier 
price, is the great desideratum. On the contrary, when the cheese-market is 
advancing it is often advisable to make cheese that will take a much longer 
time in curing, so that in holding for higher prices there will be less danger 
of deterioration in the quality of the cheese by their becoming off in flavor. 
Now, in the ripening or curing of cheese, I regard the action of the rennet 
as the element that does the whole business ; and, therefore, in making cheese 
that are to cure quickly, we have only to place the rennet in the most favor- 
able circumstances for promoting its growth all through the process of manu- 
facture, and to cure slowly, the opposite. Now, what are the most favorable 
circumstances for promoting the growth of the spores of the rennet ? 

" First, is the presence of the greatest quantity of butter in the milk to 
be manufactured into cheese. Second, a larger amount of rennet added to 
such milk. Third, by using a lower temperature in cooking or scalding 
the curd. Fourth, the absence or a minimum amount of acid in the curd, 
when the salt is added ; and. Fifth, a less quantity of salt added to the 
curd ; also by keeping the cheese in the curing-room at a higher temperature. 
Cheese made from tainted milk will naturally cure more quickly than if the 
milk was good. An exactly opposite process will check the growth of the 
spores of the rennet in the milk, curd and cheese, and cause the cheese to 
cure more slowly. Heat hastens the development of the acid more rapidly 
than the development of the rennet spores, and though heat hastens both 
developments, the acid is generated faster relatively. Cheese cured quickly 
ought to go into immediate consumption, as if kept, especially in warm 
weather, they deteriorate in quality very rapidly. And I think that the com- 
plaints of the English shippers about the defects in the color and flavor of 
American cheese, when held over winter, are mainly owing to the fact that 
these cheese have been cured too quickly to hold long." 

These views above, from some of our most successful cheese-makers, and 
very recently expressed (1871), are worthy of attention. 

SALTING THE CURDS. 

The leading object of using salt in the curds is to arrest putrefactive fer- 
mentation, and hold the cheese in a condition to make a suitable article of 
food. Different nations, it is true, differ in their tastes. Some of the people 
on the continent of Europe have so educated their taste as to prefer cheese that 
is more or less tainted, but the English race, as a rule, demand a clean, well- 
flavored article. As we are manufacturing mostly for English and American 
markets, my remarks must refer particularly to the great bulk of goods made 
to suit, what may be denominated as the English taste. The Swiss, the Lim- 
berger, and other characters of cheese are now made to some extent in this 
country, but the quantity is so small when compared with the great mass of 
our product, that American dairymen do not generally understand what the 
peculiar flavor is which is esteemed in the cheeses referred to. 
.29 



450 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Salt is a very important agent in modifying the taste of cheese,, and on 
the manner in which it is^used, will depend in a great measure the character 
and reputation of the dairy in market. In the application of salt there can 
be but little doubt, that fine, clean flavor can be best secured in the cheese by 
salting when the curds are comparatively cool. Some manufacturers have 
the impression that salt is more efficient, and is more evenly distributed when 
the curds are quite warm. I believe it is a well-established rule among meat 
packers, that meats are secured in the best condition when salt is applied after 
the meat has cooled off. At any rate in cheese manufacture a fine, delicate 
flavor is only obtained when salt is applied to the curds at a low temperature. 
This rule is strictly observed in the celebrated dairies of England, whether it 
be Cheshire or Cheddar. Among the best Cheshire dairies, the heat at no 
time during the process of manufacture is allowed to run above 78* or 80", 
and in applying salt, as a rule 1b° should be regarded as the maximum tem- 
perature of the curds. 

In addition to the liability of affecting injuriously the flavor of cheese, by 
applying salt while the curds are too warm, the salt has another effect. Its 
action is to harden the parts of the curd Avith which it comes in contact, sur- 
rounding them with a tough pellicle or coat of caseine, and thus preventing 
a free flow of whey. The whey should be thoroughly expelled before salting, 
for in no other way can the quantity of salt be regulated with certainty. If 
there is much whey in the curds at the time of salting, it will be no easy 
matter to guess at the quantity of salt that will pass off in the whey, and 
hence, when this kind of guess work is relied on by the manufacturers, the 
cheese will not be of uniform character. When too small a quantity of salt 
is used, the cheese ripens with great rapidity, and must be eaten when com- 
paratively young, for it will soon get out of flavor. Oh the other hand, too 
much salt delays the ripening process ; the cheese is long in coming to 
maturity, and is likely to be hard and stiff. It Avill be seen, therefore, that 
the quantity of salt to be used should be pretty accurately determined, 
according to the character of cheese we design to make. If we want cheese 
to ripen in thirty days from the tub or vat, and go into market early and be 
consumed, the quantity of salt must be regulated for that object; while 
cheese of long-keeping qualities, maturing slowly, and requiring a higher per 
centage of salt, must needs have the quantity also regulated with precision. 
When the curds are drained, and subjected to pressure for a short time in 
the hoop, and then broken up by passing through a curd mill, and then 
salted as in the Cheddar process, the proportion of salt can be regulated 
with great nicety. But in all cases, before salting, it is well to have the 
curds as dry as they can be conveniently made. 

^ Another office of salt is to check the acidity of the curds. When the 
acid has been fully developed, and the process carried far enough, the appli- 
cation checks its further progress, and thus, in the manipulation, is made to 
serve a very important purpose in the hands of a skillful manufacturer. I can 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 451 

only announce some of the principles to be observed in the use of salt for 
clieese-malcing. What I particularly wish to impress is, that it cannot be 
employed at random, and that the making of fine cheese depends, in a good 
degree, upon the time, manner and quantity in which the manufacturer 
employs this agent for his work. The quantity of salt used by manufjxcturers 
varies according to the character of cheese to be made at different seasons of 
the year, from two and one-fourth to three pounds of salt to one hundred 
pounds of green cheese. In spring, when it is desired to have the cheese 
ripen quickly, as low a proportion as two to two and one-fourth pounds are 
used. In hot weather, two and a-half to two and seven-tenths pounds, for 
one hundred pounds green cheese are employed by the best manufacturers, 
aud sometimes three pounds are used, and these proportions refer to curds 
that are not pressed before salting, and consequently are not thoroughly 
drained of whey. The rule among the best Cheddar dairymen of England is 
one pound of salt for fifty-six pounds of curd ; the salt applied after the curds 
have been pressed for ten minutes in the hoop, and then ground in a curd 
mill, the temperature of the curds being from 60° to 65°. The English 
Cheddars are longer in coming to maturity than the usual style of American 
manufacture. It will be seen, also, that in the English process, the curds 
are made dryer at the time of salting, than generally obtains in American 
manufacture, and that in consequence a less amount of salt is required, or is 
used, than at the American factories. 

THE KIND OF SALT TO BE USED. 

Much has been said and written about salt for dairy purposes ; the subject 
is by no means exhausted ; it at least demands discussion and agitation, so 
long as dairy products continue to be injured and spoiled by the use of an 
impure article. Many people imagine that all salt in the market is pure ; that 
if its appearance to the eye is clean, it contains no ingredients deleterious to 
butter and cheese, and that all the difference between a common article and 
the higher grades consists in pulverizing and putting up in neater packages. 
One can meet scores of men who will insist there is no other difference than 
that we have named, and that they do not propose to throw away money on 
a high-priced article. They prefer to prepare their own salt, crushing the 
lumps, if necessary, and chuckling over the superior sagacity they have to 
those who are throwing away their money on a high-priced article. Some- 
how it generally turns out that these very wise and saving persons have a 
low grade product of butter and cheese, and in consequence make sales con- 
siderably below those obtained for a first-class article. 

I have sustained losses, both in butter and cheese, on account of using 
poor salt, and I have no confidence in the common barrel salt constantly to 
be met with in the market. Some of it may be good, and most of it may 
possibly do for the ordinary purposes for which it was intended, but the risk 
never should be taken of using it in butter and cheese. The dealers and 



452 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

experts in butter have for years cautioned the butter-makers to use nothino- 
but the best Ashton or LiverjDool salt. Chlorides of calcium and magnesium 
are the substances in salt which affect the taste and injure the quality of 
butter, however carefully otherwise it may be made. 

Solar salt, produced by evaporating the brines, and which is largely used 
by packers, though it may not contain any deleterious substance that would 
affect meats, is very likely to contain a sufficient per centage of the chlorides 
to injure the taste of butter. To the cultivated taste of an experienced 
butter buyer, the least trace of the chlorides existing in the salt used betrays 
its presence. The Ashton is a very good salt, but is expensive. All the salt 
sold under the name or brand of Ashton is not genuine. Cheese and butter- 
makers should purchase their salt only of reliable dealers— men Avho know 
where they obtain their goods, and can vouch for their quality. 

Somewhat recently the Onondaga Salt Works, at Syracuse, N. Y., have 
been manufacturing a superior dairy salt. Prof Goessman, a distinguished 
chemist, was employed for some years at the Works, to superintend the 
manufacture of salt, with a view of freeing it from deleterious substances, 
and it is by his process that the brand known as " factory filled " or dairy 
salt is now manufactured. From numerous chemical analyses, it exhibits 
greater purity than the Ashton and other foreign brands, and its use among 
our best dairymen, for some years, has proved its perfect adaptation to 
the dairy. 

At the New York State Fair, in 1867, there was a large exhibition of 
butter from different parts of the State, and among the packages were a num- 
ber of samples, half of which had been salted with Onondaga and half with 
Ashton salt. The Committee, composed of experts, pronounced, in twenty- 
five cases, the butter cured with factory filled salt, made at the New York 
Mills, Syracuse, to be the best, as compared with its alternate package, cured 
in the same dairy with Ashton. Prof S. W. Johnson of the Sheffield Scien- 
tific School, Yale College, has stated that the purest salt made in this or any 
other country that he is acquainted with, came from Syracuse, where the 
ingenious processes of Dr. Goessman were then employed, and that such 
factory filled salt must take rank second to none, as regards purity and free- 
dom from any deleterious ingredients, especially the chlorides of calcium and 
magnesium. Gov. Alvoed of Syracuse stated, at a meeting of the Amer- 
ican Dairymen's Association, that the Onondaga Salt Company were pre- 
pared to guarantee their factory filled salt, and to pay for every pound of 
butter or cheese that was injured by the use of such salt ; but the salt must 
come from the accredited agents of the Company, as certain dealers had been 
known to put up other salt in packages, using the factory filled brand. 

I have referred to these facts, because I know the genuine article to be 
good ; and as it is furnished much cheaper than the foreign or imported salt, 
it is of interest for dairymen to know it. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 453 

to distinguish good salt. 
A satisfactory evidence of pure salt is its dryness, as the chlorides cause 
salt to absorb and retain moisture. In order that dairymen may be enabled 
to judge somewhat of the character of good dairy salt, from its aj)pearance 
in addition to its dryness, I give the following from Prof. Chaeles H. 
Porter : — " A chalky or very fine grained or pulverulent salt is not the best 
for dairy purposes, and would at once be rejected, I believe, by experience 
dairymen. A good dairy salt, ought, I imagine, besides being of proper 
chemical composition, to be of moderately fine grain, crystalline and trans- 
parent, and, when seen in a mass, of a pure white color ; it ought to be 
free from odor, and possess that sharp, pungent taste characteristic of 
pure salt." 

STIRRING THE MILK DURING THE NIGHT. 

One of the mechanical devices brought to the notice of cheese-manu- 
facturers, during the past few years, is the milk agitator. They commenced 
to be used in 1867, but since that time their use has become quite general, 
and our best factories in New York consider them of great utility. They are 
without doubt one of the useful improvehients for cheese factories in this age 
of fertile invention. There are two or three kinds, but all work nearly upon 
the same principle, or accomplish the same object, that is, stirring the milk 
in the vats during the night, and are operated by the waste water from the 
vats. Before these appliances came in use, it was necessary for cheese- 
makers to stir the night's milk in the vats until it Avas reduced to a temper- 
ature of 60". In hot weather the constant flow of water under the milk, or 
between the vats, Avas not sufficient to preserve it in good order, and this 
stirring had to be continued, from time to time, until a late hour of the night. 
It is evident if machinery can be introduced for this purpose, a great saving 
of labor is secured. 

There is another object gained by stirring the milk at intervals during 
the night : the cream is prevented from rising, which is of great importance 
where butter is not made at the factory, as it is very difficult to get the 
cream which has once risen back again into the milk for cheese-making with- 
out loss ; and again, the particles of milk being moved so as to be exposed 
to the atmosphere, it keeps in better order. The apparatus is quite simple, 
and consists merely of a wooden float, attached to an arm, which is carried 
back and forward, at intervals, across the vat, and operated by a water 
wheel or water box, which is kept moving by the M'aste water from the vats. 
Doubtless much benefit is often gained by this movement of the milk, 
especially when not in perfect condition, as the particles are being constantly 
exposed to the atmosphere, and improved by allowing bad odors to pass off: 

During the summer of 1867 one of the best cheese manufacturers of 
Oneida wrote to me as follows : — " Believing, as I do, that the agitator 
deserves more extensive notice, and more general introduction into cheese 



454 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



factories than it has yet received, I desire to add my testimony respect- 
ing its merits and benefits. Some weeks since I consented to have the 
agitator introduced into the four vats of my factory, on trial ; I am so far 
pleased with it, that I have come to the conclusion that it is a necessary 
appurtenance to my factory. It is not claimed for it, I believe, that a larger 
yield of cheese can be obtained by its use, though I am of opinion that a 
slight increase in quantity and quality will result, when the agitator is 
judiciously used; this will especially be the case in the cold part of the 
season : it certainly is a perfect preventive of the raising of any cream, and 
that this is an important advantage no one will deny, I find, also, that the 
milk in the vats, in the morning, has an incomparably sweeter, cleaner, 
fresher taste and smell than ever before ; and this, notwithstanding the fact 
that my spring aifords an abundance of excellent water, and the temperature 
of the milk in the morning, before the agitator was put in, had always been 




Austin's Agitator, showino Water Wheel and manner op appltinq Eakes to the Vats. 
from 54° to 58°. The necessity of stirring milk until ten, eleven and even 
twelve o'clock at night, as is the case in very many factories, is entirely 
obviated. If there were no other advantage arising, resulting from its use, 
this alone should be sufficient argument in its favor. Factory hands work 
hard, and if the night's labor can be dispensed with, it should be done. Of 
course, further experience and fuller acquaintance with its operations and 
effects may modify and radically change my views in relation to it. After 
the testimony of such experienced and successful cheese-makers as Col. 
Miller and others, who used it last year, I hardly look for such a result. 
At present I heartily commend its use, only suggesting that, in my judg- 
ment, the motion of the frame and rakes should be slow— not over two or 
three strokes per minute." The experience of the past three years has con- 
firmed these views as to the utility of this appliance. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. >^ 455 

use op ice in" cooling and preserving milk, 
The use of ice in cooling and preserving milk for cheese manufacture is 
practiced to a large extent. It is applied in various ways ; sometimes by 
adding it in messes to the milk in the vats, or by placing it in large tin cool- 
ers, which are then immersed in the milk, and in various other ways, to suit 
the convenience of those who have the care of the dairy. Recently coolers 
have been invented, to be used for cooling milk with ice at the farm ; but it 
may be well to caution those who employ ice for this purjDose, that it should 
not be used in direct contact with the milk, or in any way in which the milk 
may come in contact with an ice-cold surface. . 

An impression prevails with many that no injury can result to milk from 
the use of ice, no matter in what way it may be employed. Ice, if judiciously 
used in connection with the dairy, is convenient and useful in hot weather, 
and especially so when the supply of water is limited, or its temperature is so 
high that the milk cannot be cooled down properly by it alone. But because 
the direct application of an ice cold surface does not do the milk any apparent 
injury for the moment, it must not be inferred that it has no remote influence 
upon the product of butter and cheese which may be manufactured out of 
such milk. All animal bodies, though they may be kept fresh and sweet for 
a long time when laid upon ice in an ice box, yet when exposed to the air and 
warmth rapidly decompose and become stale. When milk has been cooled 
by coming in contact with ice and then manufactured into cheese, the injury 
does not immediately show itself; but it has been observed that the cheese 
ripens rapidly, decays early, and will not keep in flavor like that which is 
made of milk, none of the particles of which have come in contact with a sur- 
face of lower temperature than 50®. 

The butter makers of Orange county,. N. Y., who have experimented 
laro-ely with milk, are extremely cautious in the use of ice in connection with 
butter manufacture. It is sometimes necessary to use it during hot weather 
while churning, by breaking it up fine and applying it to the cream in the 
churn ; but when ice has been employed in this way, the butter will not 
keep ; though for present use the butter may be regarded as of prime quality. 
In 1868, during the month of July, we had extremely warm weather, and ice 
was used in the New York factories quite freely — often injudiciously. From 
an account of the cheese made that year, given by the English shjpper, Mr. 
Webb, it appears there was not a single factory sending cheese abroad that 
had it arrive and retain a good, clean flavor. He says : — " The English dealer 
and the English consumer alike began to get a surfeit of that strong flavored, 
loosely made, bad-keeping quality, which was the universal characteristic of 
the July make of cheese. This inferior quality," he remarks, "was doubtless 
largely owing to the intensely hot weather then prevailing. But whatever 
the cause, your very serious attention should be directed to the discovery of 
a remedy — for not a single dairy, .is far as my personal experience and pretty 
full inquiries extended, not one single dairy stood the test of that most trying 



456 ^ Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

month. Even those dairies that for a series of years have been always and 
uniformly excellent, did not hold their own last July ; but proved in the 
matter of flavor and keeping qualities to be no better than the great majority 
of your State factories." 

Now how far the injudicious use of ice may have added to the trouble I 
am unable to say; but I have no doubt that some share at least may be justly 
laid to that source. I have personal knowledge of some factories where large 
quantities of ice are used to cool the milk by applying it directly to the milk 
in the vats, and the milk is apparently in good order, and yet great complaint 
is made of the cheese manufactured as soon "off flavor," while it must be 
observed that the best flavored goods are not made at those factories which 
use the ice in this way ; but where there is an abundance of pure, cold 
water — cold water and an agitator which stirs the milk during the nio-ht, 
worked by the waste water from the vats, give practically the best results. 
As this question of ice is somewhat new to the dairy public, and has not been 
very closely investigated by cheese manufacturers, it will be sufficient to call 
attention to the matter, with the suggestion to avoid as far as possible the 
use of ice, or an ice cold surface in direct contact with the milk. 

DRAWING OFF THE CURDS. 

Where large quantities of milk are delivered at one point to be manufac- 
tured into cheese, it is important to have every convenience, so that it may 
be handled easily and expeditiously. Without convenient appliances the 
cheese factory system would be a failure. It would be very difficult, and 
perhaps impossible, to make the fine character of cheese now demanded in 
the leading markets of the Avorld by massing the milk in large quantities, and 
using old appliances in operation before the factory system was inaugurated. 
It is to the perfection of cheese factory machinery and the mechanical devices 
for manipulating milk in proper time that the manufacturer, in a great measure, 
owes his success. It is true, intelligence and skill, with habits of close obser- 
vation, are necessary in cheese manufacture, and no amount of mechanical 
contrivance can be substituted for them. But as many of the operations in 
cheese making admit of no delay, but require immediate and rapid action, 
the appliances must be suited to the work, or the most skillful operator will 
be liable to fail in securing the best results. What seems to be a most for- 
tunate thing for American cheese dairying is, that whenever any essential 
point or principle is discovered in manufacture, the inventors imme- 
diately step in with devices or contrivances for easily securing the object 
desired. I could mention several of these which are unknown among the best 
Cheddar cheese makers of England, and which doubtless would not yet have 
been invented here had we remained under the old system of farm dairies. 

THE SHUTE. 

Among the somewhat recent improvements in cheese factory arrangements 
IS the Shute. This invention originated in Herkimer county, and is now 



Pracjical Dairy Husbandry. 457 

being adopted by all the new or improved rnodled factories. The shute is 
now introduced among those factories in New York which produce cheese 
that sells for extreme or " top prices." I do not presume to say that the 
shute is the only or chief cause of the high reputation which these factories 
enjoy, and yet I have no doubt it has contributed somewhat in efiecting this 
reputation. Indeed, in some instances at least, tlie manufacturers are from 
factories where the shute is not employed, and only in taking charge of the 
shute factories have their reputations reached the enviable position they now 
enjoy. The shute is an arrangement in the vats, whereby all the curds in the 
vats may be thrown upon the sink in a moment. In this arrano-ement the 
floor of the manufacturing room at one end of the vats is sunk some four feet 
below the part upon which the vats stand. Here is placed the sink upon 
rails, and in some instances immediately back of it the presses. The ends of 
the vats come out nearly to the fall in the floor, and in the end of each vat 
there is a large circular opening secured with an iron door, water-tight, which 
is opened for the discharge of the curds. When a vat is to be emptied the 
sink is rolled along opposite the vat, the vat canted down, the tin conductor 
placed under the orifice or point of discharge in the vat, and the iron door 
removed. In this manner the vat is rapidly emptied of its contents, and the 
curds at once spread out upon the sink to cool. Old clieese makers will 
readily understand the advantage of this arrangement. When the acid is 
properly developed it should be immediately checked. With large masses 
of curd, and under the old arrangement, it was very difficult to time opera- 
tions to meet this condition. To dip the curd out with pails often required 
so much time that, do the best you could, the acid would often be carried too 
far before the work was accomplished. As the temperature of the atmosphere 
varies from day to day, and the condition of the milk is also difierent, it was 
exceedingly difficult to calculate the changes that would occur in a few 
minutes. It will be seen, then, how great the advantage is when the manu- 
facturer can empty his vat at once. Sometimes acidity goes on gradually for 
a time, and then all at once is developed much more rapidly than was antici- 
pated. With the shute you are master of the situation ; you have the whole 
matter under control ; you manipulate your forces to produce an exact result ; 
you march to the very threshold of danger, but do not step over the line ; 
you have control of the shute, and at the word of command you feel that you 
can count upon accomplishing the object desired. The shute is, without 
doubt, of considerable assistance in securing the make of nice, marketable 
goods, and its adoption can be recommended on- this account, in addition to 
the labor it saves over the old plan of dipping. 

PROCESS FOK MAKING EXTRA PINE CHEESE. 

We have now discussed at length some of the leading points in cheese 
manufacture, and I here give some of the most recent views and practice of 
manufacturers who have been successful in making a high-priced cheese, and 



458 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



^ 



in this connection the following paper of Mr. A. McAdam, read at the Dairy- 
men's Convention of 1871, so fully explains in regular order and in detail the 
method of cheese making at the Smith Creek factory, that it will be useful. 
I may remark in passing that the cheese made at the Smith Creek factoiy in 
1869 and 1870 was regarded by dealers and shippers as a fancy article, and 
it sold at the Little Falls, N. Y., market uniformly at the highest price paid 
for best factories, Mr. McAdam says : — " I will give a description of the 
process as I practice it, and state some of the reasons why I practice it. As 
you ai'e probably all aware, the milk that is delivered at cheese factories is 
not always in the same state, sometimes being tainted or partially putrid, 
sometimes sour, or nearly so, and sometimes it is, what it always ought to be, 
perfect. I propose to describe the process, first, when the milk is right and 
good; second, when it is partially sour, and third, when tainted. The 
evening's milk, when delivered at the factory, ought to be cooled so as to 
reach a temperature of 58° to 62° in the morning. When the morning's 
milk is added, it is heated to 80", then enough rennet is added to coagulate 
the mass in as nearly forty minutes' time as possible. When the curd has 
attained sufficient consistency, it is cut four times — twice with the horizontal 
curd knife, and twice with the perpendicular one, with a short interval 
between each cutting. The curd is then gently manipulated and heated to 
96°, care being taken to prevent the curd from packing on the bottom of the 
vat ; the time required for heating being from an hour to an hour and a-half. 
The stirring is continued for ten or fifteen minutes after this heat has been 
attained, and the curd is then allowed to pack on the bottom of the vat, where 
it lies undisturbed until the separation of the whey from the curd becomes 
necessary. Up to this stage the process is almost identical with that prac- 
ticed in manufacturing cheese in the usual manner. 

" In the manufacture of American cheese (I will so designate the method 
usually practiced, to distinguish it from the process, which I will term Ched- 
dar)^ it is of the utmost importance to determine the precise time at which to 
separate the whey from the curd, and it is also an operation requiring the 
greatest amount of skill and experience, as well as the exercise of the nicest 
sense of taste and smell. But in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese it is not 
of the same vital importance, as the Avhey can be separated from the curd 
from half an hour to an hour and a-half before acidity is developed so as to 
be perceptible ; and, on the other hand, the whey can be left on the curd till 
the acid is distinctly developed, without materially affecting the quality of the 
product. As the acid or souring generally makes its appearance about noon, 
in summer, the Cheddar system gives factory hands more time lor dinner, 
and consequently they can masticate their food, instead of having to bolt it, 
as has to be done in many cases. When the whey is drawn off, and the vat 
tipped down on one end, the curd is then heaped on each side of the vat, 
leaving a space in the middle to allow the remainder of the whey to pass off. 
I may here state that when the " shute," or flood gate, is not used, there 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 459 

ought to be, in the Cheddar system, a faucet in the vat, to allow the whey to 
pass off as it drains from the curd. After the curd has laid in a heap on the 
bottom of the vat for jBfteen or twenty minutes, and the original particles of 
curd have become amalgamated into a solid mass, it is then cut into con- 
venient pieces with a knife, and turned over, and so left until the curd has 
become sour enough for grinding and salting, which is determined by the 
taste of the whey that drains from the curd. This whey should now have a 
sharp, sour milk taste, which can be understood by any intelligent cheese 
maker, after a few days' experience. The curd is then torn by hand into 
strips of two or three pounds weight, and allowed to cool for a short time, in 
order to allow the butter in it to become solid enough so as not to escape 
during the operation of grinding. The curd is then ground into pieces, 
averaging about the size of hickory nuts. Five hundred pounds of curd can 
be ground by hand, with Mc Adam's curd mill, in from five to fifteen minutes, 
according to the toughness of the curd and muscle of the operator. The salt 
is then immediately added and mixed thoroughly, at the rate of from one and 
a-half to two and a quarter pounds per one thousand pounds of milk, accord- 
ing to circumstances. The curd is then ready to be put into the hoops for 
pressing. 

" 2d. Mode of procedure when the milk we have to handle is (from what- 
ever cause) sour, or partially so ; and such cases are liable to happen in any 
factory, however well regulated. You are all aware that when milk is par- 
tially sour, it will coagulate in the same time as sweet milk with the addition 
of considerably less rennet. But to such milk I usually add more rennet, 
instead of less, so as to have the coagulation occur very quickly. As soon as 
the rennet has completed its ofiice, I commence cutting and working the curd 
much more rapidly than usual. In such cases I use very little heat in scald- 
ing — seldom heating over 86° or 90°, according to the severity of the case. 
Indeed, in some instances, when the milk is very sour, I do not think that it 
is advisable to heat the curd at all after coagulation. I reason in this way : 
just as good cheese can be made without scalding at all, as with it; the 
reason that we scald the curd (if heating to a temperature of 98° can be called 
scalding), is to develop the acid sooner, and if, when the curd is inclined to 
develop acid sooner than usual, we heat it to a temperature of 96° to 98°, 
we hasten the action of the acid, which is the very thing we are trying to 
avoid. In other words, when the acid in the curd is developing too fast of 
its own accord, we develop it still faster by means of heat, and thus aggra- 
vate the evil. After this curd is cut up, the whey must be removed from it 
as fast as it makes its appearance, and as soon as practicable the vat must be 
tipped down and the curd thrown to the upper end of the vat. The curd at 
this stage is very sloppy, as it contains considerable whey. One person 
should now cut it into small pieces with a knife, and another be employed in 
turning the pieces over and piling them up in heaps, so as to liberate the 
whey, which passes off in a continuous stream. When the curd has assumed 



460 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

a proper consistency it must be ground and salted ; the quantity of salt used 
must be according to the amount of whey contained in the curd, which-is 
generally, in such cases, considerably more than usual. In extreme cases, the 
whole process, from the adding of the rennet to the mixing in of the salt, can 
be performed in less than an hour. 

" To explain why more rennet is needed when the milk is partially sour, 
I will refer to the address delivered by Professor Caldwell last year, before 
this Convention, and also to the able and highly useful paper read by L. B. 
Arnold, Esq., on 'Rennet, its Nature and Use,' before the same Conven- 
tion. These gentlemen demonstrated to us very clearly that the acting 
principle of rennet consists of minute globules, or spores, which feed upon 
nitrogenous substances, and when placed in such, at a favorable temperature, 
multiply very rapidly. Now a quantity of rennet, containing a vast number 
of these spores, placed in a vat of milk which is highly nitrogenous, at a tem- 
perature of 80°, which is favorable to their growth, will multiply in a short 
time to such an extent as to cause its coagulation. And their action by no 
means stops here. They have still a very important mission to perform, viz., 
that of curing or ripening the cheese. And if the presence of these spores 
in the cheese, cures or rijjens it, an excess of them will ripen the cheese more 
quickly, and vice versa. Now we all know that a sour cheese, or a cheese 
which contains an excess of sour milk spores (Arthrococci), takes a much 
longer time to ripen than a sweet cheese, and vice versa. Therefore, to have 
a cheese cured in a given time, the spores of the Micrococci and of the Arthro- 
cocci, must be contained in it in relative quantities. So, when we have a vat 
of sour milk to handle, where the Arthrococci are in abundance, we must add 
more rennet to counterbalance their action on the nitrogenous ingredients of 
the milk, and thereby cause the cheese to ripen much quicker than if less 
rennet had been added. I have found by experiment, during the past sum- 
mer, that cheese made from sour milk in the above manner will cure as fast 
as other cheese, but they will require more annatto to make them of the same 
color, these sour milk spores appearing to have a destructive effect upon 
annatto. I have likewise noticed that such cheese will have more tendency 
to mold, but the flavor will not be objectionable. 

"3. When the milk is tainted, or has an excess of putrefactive spores. 
This tainted milk occurs, in some localities, in hot weather, no matter what 
care is taken in cleaning the ixtensils with which it comes, in contact, and I 
think that the milk is damaged in most cases before it is drawn from the cow. 
But of course it can be greatly aggravated by being brought into contact 
with unclean milk pails, strainers, cans, &c., which have not been properly 
cleansed, and therefore contain numbers of those putrefactive spores clinging 
to their seams and crevices, and which spring into new life and activity on 
being brought into contact with the warm milk. During the past season, 
from the middle of June to the middle of September, in a factory of over nine 
hundred cows, I did not have a vat of milk which was not tainted, most of it 



Fractical JJairy Husbandry. 461 

very badly, and over one-third of it so much that the curd floated. The 
cheese made from this milk sold for the highest price iu the Little Falls mar- 
ket. In handling such milk I prefer to have the temperature of the evening's 
mess about 68° or 70° in the morning before the morning's milk is added, for 
two reasons. First, it has been shown that the putrefactive spores are in 
great abundance in such tainted milk ; by leaving the evening's milk through 
the night at a higher temperature, we promote the growth of the Arthro- 
cocci, or sour milk spores, and these check the growth of the Micrococci, and 
counterbalance their action to a certain degree. Second, when the milk is left 
through the night at a higher temperature, a great number of the putrefac- 
tive spores pass off in the form of gas, esi^ecially where the milk agitator is 
used. This we know by the foul odor it emits when warm, but when the 
milk is cooled to a low tem];)erature, this gas is not so volatile, and does not 
escape so readily, as we can perceive by its emitting little or no smell. But 
the cooling of the milk does not kill the Micrococci ; it only partially pre- 
vents their escape, and though at the same time cooling the milk, also retards 
their growth as well as their escape ; it also retards the growth of the sour 
milk spores, and these are much more efficient agents for the prevention of 
putrefaction than cooling is. Therefore, I maintain that the less tainted or 
putrid milk is cooled, so as not to be absolutely sour in the morning, the 
better the product obtained will be, if the milk be properly handled. I know 
that some cheese-makers prefer cooling such milk to as low a temperature as 
possible, and add sour whey with the rennet in the morning, and have very 
good success, but I prefer the former method, as by it the foi'mation of the 
putrefactive spores is checked at a much earlier stage of the proceedings. 
With this difference of cooling the milk, my process is the same with tainted 
milk as with good milk, until the separation of the whey from the curd. 
When tainted we allow the whey to remain on the curd imtil acid is slightly 
perceptible, whether the curd floats or not. The whey is then drawn off and 
the curd handled as before. If the curd is badly tainted, while lying in a 
mass at the bottom of the vat, it will swell up to twice its original size, like 
dough under the action of the yeast, and when broken emits a very offensive 
odor. The exact degree of acidity to be allowed to develop at this point is 
the most important, as well as the most difficult thing to determine in the 
whole management of floating curds, as the odor and taste of both the curd 
and the whey that drains from it very much resemble acid, and are in a great 
many instances mistaken for it. The acid ought to be developed just enough 
to kill the taint, and no more, and the result, notwithstanding the assertions 
of some to the contrary, will be a fine cheese. After the requisite amount 
of acid has been determined upon, and the curd ground and salted (using the 
same amount of salt as when not tainted), the curd must be cooled and ven- 
tilated as much as possible before being put to press. 

" I do not pretend to say that cheese can be made from tainted milk and 
floating curds, possessing quite as much of the fine, nutty aroma as f]-om 



4G2 PRACTICAL DAIRY HUSBANDRY. 

curds properly handled which are not tainted at all. But I do assert that I 
have seen cheese made from floating curds, in several factories during the past 
summer, that were perfectly close, rich and meaty, having no objectionable 
flavor, and which not one expert in ten would object to. 

" One other fact I wish to mention : It requires more milk when tainted, 
to make a pound of cheese, than when it is not. One reason for this is, that 
more acid must be present in such cases, and, of course, the more acid the 
less cheese. In the Smith Creek Factory, last summer, it took two pounds 
more milk to make a pound of cheese in July than it did in April. 

" I have endeavored to tell you how I practice grinding curds. I will now 
try to tell you why I practice it. In the first place, I think that it requires 
less milk to make a pound of cheese ; in the second place, it does not tax the 
judgment of the cheese-maker so much, or require so much skill and atten- 
tion ; and, in the third place, I think that cheese made by the Cheddar process 
will be closer, and at tlie same time appear more rich and buttery, and will 
cure faster. It takes less milk to make a pound of cheese because the whey 
is drawn from the curd before the acid is perceptible, while in the American 
system, the whey has to be left on the curd from ten to sixty minutes after 
acid is detected, in order to insure a good, solid cheese, and you all know that 
sour whey will eat or digest grease from any substance containing it, with which 
it comes in contact. The longer the curd is exposed to this acidity in the whey 
the slimier the whey becomes, on account of the grease it has taken from 
the curd, and, in fact, some cheese-makers determine when the curd is ready 
to dip into the sink by the sliminess or sudsing of the whey. The quantity 
of butter which passes ofi" unseen in the American system is certainly more 
than is contained in the small quantity of wJiite whey which comes from the 
cheese when pressing in the Cheddar system. 

" During the past season, notwithstanding the general complaint that the 
milk did not yield well, and the fact that over half of the cheese made at 
Smith Creek Factory was from tainted milk, we used only 9 9-lOths pounds 
of milk for one pound of cured cheese. And the reason why the Cheddar . 
cheese will appear more rich and buttery, with the same solidity, is that when 
the whey is drawn from the curd before the acid is detected, the action of 
the sour milk spores is retarded, and the rennet, at work in the mass of warm 
curd, is allowed full play. And, as the rennet cures the cheese, it will there- 
fore cure sooner, and, curing sooner, will be richer and more buttery at the 
same age." 

HERKIMER COUNTY " FANCY FACTORY CHEESE." 

As the manner of making a high-priced cheese is always of interest to 
manufacturers, I give some of the leading features at a few fancy factories 
where " gilt-edged" cheese is made. The processes are those adopted in 1870. 
At the North Fairfield Factory, the temperature of milk in the morning is 
56°. The night's milk is cooled by passing a stream of water between the* 
vats and underneath the milk vat. Rennet is added for coagulating when the 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 463 

milk has been raised to a temperature of 84°. After coagulation is perfected 
the curds are cut first with the horizontal curd-knife, which leaves the mass 
in thin sheets. Then follow with the perpendicular knife, cutting lengthwise 
of the vat. Let the curds now stand ten minutes, or until the whey forms; 
when the curds are cut with the perpendicular knife across the vat. 

The breaking having been perfected, heat is begun to be gradually applied 
and is continued until the mass reaches a temperature of 98°, the time occu- 
pied being one and a-half hours or thereabouts. It is regarded of great 
importance to heat slowly, and care is taken that tlie increase in temperature 
in all parts of the heating process is regular and gradual. Sour whey is not 
usually employed, as it is preferred that the acid be developed in heating. 
The curds are taken out of the vat into, the sink at 90° — the acid having been 
developed — and they are left exposed in the sink to cool. If acid has by 
chance been carried too far in the vat, cold water is conducted between the 
vats, under the curds .to cool them rapidly. It is preferred, however, to cool 
the curds by exposing them to the air, as they are spread out in the sink. 

When the curds have been cooled down to a temperature of from 75° to 
80°, and also ai"e thoroughly drained of whey; they are salted in summer at 
the rate of 2 9-lOths pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of green cheese, 
and for September about a tenth of a pound less salt. If the milk in hot 
weather is not all right, or if tainted, particular attention is given to have 
the curds exjDosed a long time to the atmosphere. The temperature of the 
curing-room is kept at 70°, or as near that point as possible. 

In May the average quantity of milk for a pound of cured cheese was 
9 37-lOOths pounds; in June, 9 3-lOths pounds, and in July 9 7-1 Oths pounds. 
The cheese on hand at the time of my visit, were meaty, solid and of unifoi'm 
fine flavor. The factory is convenient in its arrangements, but the building 
is very plain and cheap in appearance. 

The factory of the Norway Association receives the milk from four hun- 
dred cows, and careful attention is given among patrons to deliver clean, 
sweet milk. An agitator is kept moving in the night's milk, and the temper- 
ature of the water is reduced with ice, so that the night's milk will stand in 
the morning at a temperature of 60°. Mr. James, the manufacturer, sets the 
milk for coagulation at 84°, and during the pi'oeess of scalding 98° is the 
highest temperature employed. The best factory filled salt is used in spring 
at the rate of two and a-half pounds to one hundred of curd ; in summer the 
salt is three pounds, and in fall two and seven-tenths pounds. 

As at other factories where high-priced cheese is made, the heating process 
is very slow and gradual, requiring from one and a-quarter to one and a-half 
hours. Great attention is paid to the development of the acid, and Mr. 
James attributes his success to the faculty of distinguishing the proper con- 
dition of the curds in this respect, and to their exposure to the atmosphere in 
the sink until properly matured. Of course these peculiar conditions of the 
curds cannot be described in words, but must be learned by experience. 



464 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Mr. James says he likes to develop the acid " sharp " through Juue, July and 
August, but in fall not so much. As soon as it can be detected in the vats 
the whey is immediately withdrawn, and as I have before remarked the 
appliance of the shute is here of service in taking immediate advantao-e for 
regulating this condition of the curds. 

The cheese at this factory are pressed in fourteen and a-half inch hoops, 
weigh about sixty pounds each. Tliey are slightly colored. At the time of 
my visit fifteen cheeses were being made daily. The highest receipts of milk 
during the season were ten thousand j^ounds, which made eighteen and a-half 
cheeses daily. 

THE " COARSE CURBS " PROCESS 

is followed at the Cold Creek Factory, and whatever diifej-ence of opinion 
there may be as to the merits of this process, it is just to say that the cheese 
shows it to be a success. I saw the Cold Creek brand in England in 1866, 
and heard dealers express their opinion that it was among the best of the 
American factories. Since that time, if measured by the test of prices at home, 
the process, at least in Mr, Hopson's hands, must be considered a success. 
What is claimed in the coarse curds process, is the production of cheese, 
solid yet mellow in texture, having a sweet, nutty or new milk flavor, or as 
the trade expresses it, " clean flavored ;" and finally, a better retention of the 
butteraneous matter of the milk, than in the ordinary course of manufacture. 

The theory of the coarse curds is, that the less the cutting or agitation of 
the curds while in a soft state the more butter you retain, hence the curds are 
cut or broken no moi'e than is absolutely necessary, while the stirring is of 
the gentlest kind, and just sufiicient to keep the mass from clinging together. 
Mr. HopsoN sets the milk for coagulation at 80°, using a sufiicient quantity 
of rennet to thoroughly coagulate the mass fit for the knife in an hour. Then 
he commences cutting with a gang of steel blades, lengthwise of the vat, 
going through once. 

The mass is now left at rest from ten to twenty minutes, until the whey 
begins to rise. Then a four-bladed knife (with blades three-fourths of an 
inch apart) is used for the cross-cutting. It is set at an angle of 45° with 
the bottom of the vat, and run through the mass crosswise of the vat. Then 
if there is likely to be no immediate change in the whey, the mass is left at 
rest for ten or fifteen minutes, and the knife used again across the vat, the 
operator standing on the side opposite to where he stood for the previous 
cutting. Inexperienced cheese-makers, or those who do not understand tlie 
philosophy of cheese-making, advise that all the cutting be done as quickly 
as possible, and if an instrument could be made for the purpose, would prefer 
that all the cutting should be done instantaneously. This is evidently inju- 
dicious, as the whey forms slowly, and a complete division of curds at once 
in their tender condition cannot be efiected without liberating the oily parti- 
cles, and thus causing Avaste. Such cutting is admissible only when acidity 
is progressing rapidly, and all parts of the process require to be hastened. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 465 

lu the coarse curd process, the cutting having been performed as just 
described, it completes what is understood by " breaking " — for no other 
division or breaking up of the particles is deemed necessary. Heat is now 
begun to be applied very slowly, and the mass is stirred in the gentlest manner 
possible, and no more than to prevent the curds from running or clinging 
together. Great attention is paid to careful handling in this part of the pro- 
^cess, in order that none of the buttery particles be pressed out, the theory 
being to let the curds do their own work as far as possible. The time of 
heating up is usually about an hour or an hour and a-quarter, the mass being 
raised to 100°. After heating, the cm-ds are only stirred occasionally to pre- 
vent matting, and the mass remains in the vats till the acid is propeiiy devel- 
oped. Mr. Hopsoisr depends for the most part upon the sense of smell in 
determining the degree of acidity required, and with long practice and good 
judgment in this respect, he is able to time operations so as to manage his 
curds with great uniformity. The curds are now thrown into the sink to be 
exposed to the atmosphere, where they are stiiTed, and when properly cooled 
down and the acidity carried to the exact point desired, salt is applied. 

THE SALTING 

during the summer is at the rate of three and a-half pounds salt to one 
hundred pounds curd, and it is thoroughly and evenly incorporated with the 
curds. In spring and up to the 10th of May three and a-quarter pounds 
salt is the rate. No sour whey is used except that employed for soaking the 
rennets. The curds when ready to salt, aj^pear to be in particles about the 
size of chestnuts. They have a very nice look and feel, being what cheese- 
makers term " lively." 

Although this is an old factory tlie buildings are in good repair, clean and 
sweet, with neat suiTOundings. The size of the dairy-house is thirty by one 
hundred feet, and the manufactory, which is a separate structure, thirty-six by 
thirty-six feet. Milk is delivered from five hundred and fifty cows. Ordi- 
narily the cheese is pressed in fifteen and a-half inch hoops, and will weigh 
sixty-five pounds each. The factory is supplied with an abundance of pure 
spring Avater of a temperature of about 52''. In summer a stream of water 
is kept flowing under the night's milk in the vats, and the milk is stirred also 
during the night with Austin's agitator. 

On the 8th of September, 1869, Mr. Hopson had an order for one hun- 
dred large cheeses, eighty colored and twenty .white. The order was com- 
pleted on the 12th of October. These cheeses weighed three hundred and 
thirty pounds each, and a handsomer lot could not well be got together. I 
tested a large number of cheeses in the curing-room, and found them uniformly 
very meaty, and of clean and delicate flavor. Something of their character 
may be indicated from the fact that twenty-two cents per pound was offered 
by a purchaser in our presence for the lot of large cheese, the highest market 
rates at Little Falls at that time being nineteen cents. 
30 



466 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

About two miles east of Salisbury Center is another " fancy factory," the 
" Herkimer County," or " Avery & Ives " — giving tlie name of the proprie- 
tors. This is an old factory, and the manufacturer, Mr. E. B. Fairchild has 
been here seven years. Mr. Fairchild is, without doubt, one of the best 
cheese manufacturers in the State. His cheese stands high amono- the " fan- 
cies." He follows the coarse curds process, though not precisely in the steps 
of Mr. HopsoN. His cheese is very solid, meaty and fine-flavored. An old 
cheese-dealer and noted expert remarked to me, on the day of my visit, that 
probably nothing finer could be found in the State than the lot of cheese then 
on the shelves at the Avery & Ives factory. 

The factory takes the milk of six hundred cows, and the receipts on 
October 23d were five thousand pounds, and made into nine cheeses, which 
weighed sixty-five pounds each ; in shape, Cheddars, being pressed in fourteen 
and a-half inch hoops. The establishment is in two buildings, the making 
department being thirty by thirty feet, and the dry house one hundred by 
thirty-six feet, two stories high. The milk is set at 80°, the highest heat in 
scalding 100°. The curds are cut coarse, somewhat similar to Mr, Hopson's 
at Cold Creek, and the time of heating and extreme care in handling the 
curds are also similar; but the salting is not so high, the rate in summer 
being three pounds, and in fall two and eight-tenths pounds salt to one hun- 
dred pounds curd. 

Mr. Fairchild thinks the fine texture of his cheese results in a great 
measure from having the milk in perfect condition at the commencement of 
operations and then employing heat slowly, manijjulating the curds in the 
gentlest manner, and finally, accuracy in developing the degree of acidity. 
During cool weather in the fall, sour whey is added with the rennet to the 
milk, at the rate of two pails whey for four hundred gallons of milk. He 
thinks coarse curds make a more meaty cheese and produce a larger quan- 
tity of cheese from a given quantity of milk than fine curds. Acid is devel- 
oped in the vat with the whey rather than in the sink, and from long practice 
and close watching, he is able to detect the changes from time to time very 
accurately. The practice at other factories might be given, but these described 
will suffice, it is believed, for all practical pui-poses. 

making cheese prom a small number of cows. 

If there happen to be three or four neighbors similarly situated, that is, 
each having but two or three cows, it will be a good plan for all to join 
together, delivering a certain quantity of milk daily at some central neigh- 
bor's house, where the cheese is to be made. There will be no very great 
trouble in this, and by assisting each other, all may be supplied. As the 
labor in manufacture will be no more for ten pails of milk than for four, and 
as the cheese can then be made up at once, it will be advisable to associate 
together whenever practicable. 

Ten pails of milk will make say twenty-five gallons, and the twenty-five 



Practical Dairy Husbaxdry. 467 

gallons will give a cheese of twenty pounds, and perhaps a trifle over. If 
the milk is worked in the manner I have described, the curds may be pressed 
in a hoop eleven inches in diameter and about the same hight. Small cheeses 
of this kind need not be bandaged. After coming from the hoop, they should 
be oiled over with a little fresh butter to prevent the rind from checking, and 
may be placed upon the shelf. They will need turning every day, giving the 
surface a smart rubbing with the hand, which will prevent the cheese flies 
from securing a safe deposit of their eggs. If the rind of the cheese gets 
dry, it will be well to oil again with fresh butter. If j^roperly cared for the 
cheese will begin to be mellow in four or five weeks, and will be eatable, 
though age will improve it, and when six months old it should be of delicious 
flavor and quality if well made. 

DOUBLE CUEDS. 

But if the quantity of milk is too small to make a curd for one pressing, 
then resort may be had to what is termed double curds. These are managed 
after the following manner : The milk is .treated precisely as if there was 
sufficient for a cheese. After the curds have been drained and slightly salted 
and are ready for the hoop, they are set aside in a cool place in the cellar 
until next day. Then, after the next curds are ready, the previous day's 
curds are treated with warm whey, so that they may be broken up, when they 
are drained and the two days'' curds are thoroughly mingled together and 
salted. They are then put to press, and will unite together the same as if 
they had been a " one day's cheese." 

I have seen some most excellent cheese made in tliis way, cheese as fine in 
flavor and quality as one could wish to see. Sometimes curds are kept in this 
way three days, or more, until a sufficient quantity has accumulated to make 
a cheese of the desired size. In this way cheese can be made when only one 
cow is kept. 

GRAFTING THE CURDS. 

There is another way of managing the curds, called grafting. As soon as 
the curds are ready they are put to press. The next day the hoop is taken 
oflf and a thin scale taken from the top of the cheese with a sharp knife, and 
the fresh surface made rough with a fork. The top rind and the upper edges 
being pared off" the parings are broken up and warmed by the addition of 
whey. They are then mingled Avith the new curds and placed in the hoop on 
top of the previous day's cheese and put to press. The two days' curds will 
adhere, and in this way small quantities of milk may be utilized in cheese- 
making. Grafted cheese should always be bandaged, for unless the whey is 
very thoroughly drained from the curds, the two sections or grafts sometimes 
will not adhere so firmly as the parts where they are not joined. It is a good 
plan in grafting cheese, after paring off" the rind as I have described, to cut 
across the cheese two or three times, taking out a small triangular strip. 
Some people after paring the rind and cutting across as above, make the 



468 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



upper surface also rough by scraping with the point of a knife or fork, Tliis 
is done for the purpose of giving the new curds a stronger hold on those of 
the previous day. 

MAKIJ^G CHEESE WITHOUT PKOPEE APPAKATUS AND PIXTUKES. 

Sometimes the farmer who keeps only a few cows to supply his family 
with milk and butter, would like also to make a few cheeses for family use ; 
he does not care to make cheese to sell, and therefore hardly feels able to 
purchase cheese apparatus and fit up a dairy-house after the most approved 
models ; this he thinks would cost more than to purchase his supply of cheese 
in the market. But it often happens that where this state of things exists, 
the money cannot be spared for buying cheese, and so this luxury is dis- 
pensed with at the family table. 

Let us see now, how cheaply we can arrange for a primitive dairy. If 
nothing better is at hand, a common wash-tub, clean and sweet, will answer 
the pui'pose for setting the milk and working the curds. A hoop must be had 
from the cooper. Let it be ten inches in diameter, top and bottom, by twelve 
inches high, and fitted with a follower. 

A PRIMITIVE PRESS. 

A very good press may be made in a few hours from a twelve-foot plank, 
and a few pieces of scantling. About a foot from either end of the plank 




THE OLD-FASHIONED LOS CHEESB PRESS. 



set up two short pieces of scantling four and a-half inches apart. Fasten 
them firmly to the plank with bolts or pins. The lever may be a joist, four 
by four, or four by six, and fourteen feet long. One end is secured by a pin 
passing through the uprights at one end of the plank, and it is to move freely 
up and down between the uprights at the other end. A weight hung at one 
end of the lever and you have a press that will do good service. 

The weights at the end of the long lever are a stone or two from the 
field. There may be another lever arranged for raising the long lever or 
press-beam, without removing the weights, which are stationary. We give 
an illustration of an old-fashioned log press. 

The hoop is placed near the stationary end of the press-beam, and blocks 
put upon the follower, the press-beam let down upon them, and in this way 
the cheese is pressed. A long, thin wooden knife will do for cutting the curds. 
A gallon of good milk (wine measure) will make nearly a pound of cheese. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 469 

the process. 

Your milk having been placed in the tub, and the number of gallons 
known, a portion may be taken out and heated in pans over a common stove. 
The pan holding the milk should be set in another pan holding water or over 
a kettle containing water, so as not to scorch or burn the milk in the pan. 
Heat the milk and pour into the tub, till the mass indicates a temperature of 
85*. Then add a quantity of rennet (which has been previously prepared 
by steeping the dry skins or rennet in water), sufficient to coagulate the milk, 
say in forty or fifty minutes. Now put your finger into the curd, raise it 
slowly, and if it readily splits apart the mass is ready to cut into blocks with 
the curd knife. After cutting into checks two inches square, let it remain at 
rest ten to fifteen minutes for the whey to form. Then carefully break with 
the hands by lifting up the curds very gently, and when the mass has been 
gone over, let it rest for ten or fifteen minutes for the curd to subside. 

Now dip oif a portion of the whey into the pans, and heat on the stove in 
the same manner that the milk was warmed. In the meantime continue 
breaking, by gently lifting the curd, until the particles of curd are about 
the size of small chestnuts or large beans. Then pour in the warm whey and 
continue heating and adding the warm whey until the mass indicates a tem- 
perature of 98°. Do not be in a hurry, but take things leisurely, continuing 
the breaking or stirring the curds while heat is being applied. It may noAV 
be left at rest for half an hour and then stirred, so that the particles may not 
pack or adhere together in the tub, and this treatment continued until the 
curd has a firm consistency. Take up a handful and press it together in the 
hand, and if on opening the hand it readily falls to pieces, it is about ready 
for draining. Throw a cloth strainer over the tub and dip ofi" the whey down 
to the curd. Then put the strainer on a willow clothes basket and dip the 
curd into it to drain. It may now be broken up with the hands, and when 
pretty dry may be salted in the basket or returned to the tub for salting. 
Salt at the rate of four to four and a-half ounces of salt to ten pounds curd; 
mix it thoroughly and put to press. After remaining from two to four hours 
in press, turn and put to press again, leaving it under pressure till next 
morning, when it may be removed to the shelf. Very small cheeses need not 
be bandaged. They should be rubbed over with a little fresh butter, melted 
and applied warm, or with oil made from the cream that rises from the 
whey. They should be turned and rubbed daily until well ripened. 

THE CHEESE ELY. 

Most dairymen understand pretty well the habits of the cheese fly ; many, 
however, do not understand how to provide against its depredations. Some 
people profess to be fond of a skippery cheese, and regard it as an index of 
what the English understand as a "cheese full of meat" — that is, rich in 
butter. And it must be confessed that the cheese fly has a great partiality 
for the best goods in the curing house. They do not so readily attack your 



470 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

" white oak " and skim milk varieties, hence the notion that cheese infested 
with the fly is rich in butter is not far out of the way. 

The primary cause of skippery cheese, of course, is want of care. Cheese 
in hot weather should be closely examined every day ; they require to be 
turned once a day to facilitate the curing process ; the bandages and sides are 
to be rubbed at the time of turning, in order to brush off or destroy any nits 
of the fly which may happen to be deposited about the cheese. If there are 
cracks in the rind, or if the edges of the bandage do not fit snugly, they 
should at once be attended to, since it is at these points that the fly is most 
likely to make a safe deposit of its eggs. 

riLLISTG UP THE CBACKS. 

The cracks and checks in the cheese should be filled up with particles of 
cheese that have been crushed under a knife to make them mellow and plastic. 
When once filled, a strip of thin, tough paper, oiled and laid over the repaired 
surface will serve as a further protection of the parts. The cheese in the 
checks soon hardens and forms a new rind. Deep and bad looking checks may 
be repaired in this way, so as to form a smooth surface, scarcely to be dis- 
tinguished from the sound parts of the cheese. It is a great mistake to send 
cheese that have deep checks or broken rinds to market ; for in addition to 
their liability to be attacked by the fly, they have the appearance of being 
imperfect, and are justly regarded Avith suspicion. 

CUKING-KOOM KOT TO BE DARK. 

Some dairymen think that a darkened curing-room is best for cheese, and 
at the same time is the best protection against the fly ; I think this is a mis- 
take ; cheese cures with the best flavor when it is exposed to light, and 
besides, it can be examined more minutely from time to time and freed from 
any depredation of the skipper. August and September are generally the 
worst months in the year to protect cheese against the attacks of the fly. 
Some years the trouble is greater than others, and various means have been 
resorted to for the purpose of avoiding the pest, such as rubbing the cheese 
over with a mixture of oil and cayenne pepper, &c. These things generally 
do not amount to much, and are not to be recommended ; the best protection 
is cleanliness, sharp eyes and a good care of the cheese. Whenever a lodge- 
ment of skippers has been made they must at once be removed ; sometimes it 
will be necessary to cut into the cheese and remove the nest with a knife, but 
if the colony is young and small in numbers, a thick oiled paper, plastered 
over the affected part so as to exclude the air, will bring the pests to the 
surface, when they may be removed ; the oiled paper should again be returned 
to its place and the skippers removed from time to time till all ai-e destroyed. 

WASHING THE TABLES AND EANGES. 

If skippers begin to trouble the cheese, the best course to be adopted is 
to commence at once and wash the ranges, or tables on which the cheese are 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 471 

placed, with hot whey ; this will remove all accumulation of grease or nits 
about the ranges, giving a clean surface, which does not attract the flies. If 
the cheese also is washed in the hot whey and rubbed with a dry cloth, the 
labor of expelling the trouble from the curing-rooms will be greatly facilitated. 
Keep the curing-room clean and sweet ; see that the cheeses have a smooth 
rind, that the bandages are smoothly laid at the edges ; turn and rub the 
cheese daily, and there need be no trouble from the cheese fly. 

PAINTED CHEESE. 

There are several kinds of foreign fancy cheeses that are peculiar in having 
their sides painted with a dark brown or red color. The double Gloucester 
or North Wilts, the small loaf and truckle shapes, and the Edams, are of this 
character. In the old process of curing the double Gloucester the cheese is 
rubbed with finely powdered salt, and this is thought to make the cheese 
more smooth and solid than when the salting process is performed in the 
curd. After the cheese has been in the curing-room and turned every day for 
a month or so, it is cleaned of all scurf and rubbed with a woolen cloth, 
dipped in a paint made of Indian red, or Spanish brown and small beer. 
After the paint is dry the cheese is rubbed once a week with a cloth. The 
Edam or Dutch cheese is colored on the outside, when ready for market, with 
what is called tournesal, the juice of a plant {Croton tinctorium) which grows 
wild in France. Rags are saturated in this juice and then exposed to the 
vapor arising from lime mixed with urine, which gives them a violet color. 
The cheeses are rubbed over with these tournesal rags, which gives them the 
peculiar glowing red with which they appear in market. 

A friend, who makes small fancy cheeses in imitation of English, and 
which sell for a high price, makes a paint for coloring the rinds of the cheese 
of the following: — Sharp, sour whey, salt, Venetian red and burnt umber. 
The Venetian red and umber are added to the whey, so as to make a mixture 
of the consistency of paint and of the shade desired, and when the cheeses are 
ready for market the rinds are painted over and allowed to dry. He says 
that this mixture holds its place and color on the cheese without flaking off, 
and is altogether better than the English mixture made of beer and Indian 
red. No bandage is used upon cheese treated with this coloring matter. 

USE OF SALTPETEE. 

The use of saltpeter in cheese manufacture has been long employed in 
some of the dairy districts of England. It is claimed by those who use salt- 
peter for this purpose that it helps preserve the flavor of cheese, improving 
also the keeping qualities of the goods. I am unable to say how this may be, 
never having made any direct expei'iments in my own dairy as a test. Salt- 
peter is used extensively in curing meats, and most people understand some- 
thing of its effects when employed for this purpose. I do not understand that 
saltpeter has ever been used to any great extent in American cheese manu- 
facture, but I am informed by an old and distinguished cheese factory manager 



472 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

at Oneida that it has been used at his factory with the best results. The 
manner of preparing it for use is as follows: — Take from three to three and 
a-half pounds saltpeter and reduce it to a powder. This will be sufficient for 
one barrel of salt, best factory filled. Now spread the salt on a clean floor 
and sprinkle over with the powder as evenly as jDOSsible, and mix thoroughly 
by shoveling it over. It may then be repacked in the barrel and it is fit for 
use. When the curds are to be salted use the usual quantity by weight of 
the compound as you would of salt, if that alone was to be employed. I have 
seen small quantities of saltpeter added to salt for preserving butter with 
good results, and it is possible that saltpeter used for preserving cheese in 
the way described may be of some advantage. 

BAD FLAVOR. 

It is very difficult to point out the cause of bad flavor in cheese without 
seeing the cheese and knowing all the details in manufacture, together with 
the condition of jjastures, care of stock, water, &c. There are a great many 
things that affect flavor in cheese, and of all the months in the year June and 
July are the most trying to the cheese-maker. Much of the July cheese is 
often out of flavor, and manufacturers are often at a loss to account for it. 
Cheese that is well made will take on a taint and get out of flavor by being 
kept in a badly ventilated and ill-contrived curing-room. Cheese in curing 
needs air and a uniform temperature not higher than 15'^. Some cheese- 
rooms are excessively warm and close in hot weather, and the fermenting or 
curing powers are carried on too rapidly. 

Scurfy cheese show that there has been fault in manufacture. If it pro- 
ceeds from whey oozing out, forming a kind of gummy, sticky substance on 
the sides, the curds have not been properly matured in the vat. The cheese 
when taken from the press to the table ought not to leak whey. Sometimes 
a mold or scurf forms on cheese from damp weather, when the cheese is not 
properly rubbed daily. The scurf should be removed and the cheese " slicked 
up " before sending to market. 

POISON CHEESE. 

During a visit to St. Lawrence county a prominent cheese dealer of that 
county called my attention to a case of cheese poisoning which had come 
under his observation : — A lot of cheese had been purchased from a dairyman 
of that county by the dealer referred to, and having been shipped by him and 
placed upon the market, a complaint was instituted that the cheese proved to 
be poisonous. No deaths, it is true, came from eating the cheese, but the 
persons who ate of it were taken suddenly ill with pains and cramps and 
excessive vomiting, showing evident indications that they had been poisoned. 

It was an easy matter of course to trace the source of this illness to the 
cheese of a particular daii-y, and immediately a thorough investigation was 
inaugurated to discover the origin of the trouble. On an examination of the 
dairy where the cheese was made nothing unusual was found in the manner 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 473 

of manufacture, or in the appliances used in cheese making. The cheese had 
been made in the ordinary tin vat, and all the processes of manufacture were 
similar to those in common practice in the country. Due regard had been 
exercised as to cleanliness ; no known poisons had been employed about the 
premises, and it had become evident to the parties investigating that the 
poison, if any, in the cheese, must have come from the salt, the annatto, or in 
some way of which the cheese maker or his family were not cognizant, or 
indeed to be blamed. 

Samples of the cheese were also forwarded to Prof. jACKSoisr of Boston 
for analysis ; and having been submitted to a rigid examination by this emi- 
nent chemist, the opinion was further confirmed that the dairyman was 
blameless in the matter. Dr. Jackson states in regard to the analysis of this 
cheese as follows : — " Each and all of the samples were entirely free from any 
tone poisons. There are no metal or mineral poisons of the kind present, nor 
any alkaloids or deleterious vegetable princij^les. But there is a small pro- 
portion of offensive putrefying animal matter wliich has been separated here 
that does not belong to good clieese. It is impossible to give this impurity 
any correct name, and it is only an opinion of mine that it comes from the 
rennet used. It is not poisonous, although it occasions vomiting in dogs and 
cats, and small portions of it may be taken into the human stomach with- 
out effect." 

The facts elicited in this analysis of Dr. Jackson correspond in some 
respects with those discovered a few years since by Dr. Voelckee, and from 
which it would appear that cheese, as Avell as other kinds of animal food, 
under certain conditions of decay, generates a peculiar organic poison ; but 
what the composiiion of this virulent poison is the chemists are as yet unable 
to determine. Dr. Voelckeb stated to me that instances had come under 
his observation where this poison in cheese had become dissipated as the 
cheese passed into a further state of fermentation and decomposition, and that 
the cheese could then be safely eaten, producing no injurious or unpleasant 
effects. In his report upon this subject to the Royal Agricultural Society, a 
case is mentioned somewhat similar to that referred to in St. Lawrence 
county, and as it details more fully the nature of this peculiar poison than the 
statement of Dr. Jackson, it will be of interest perhaps to present it in this 
connection. 

Without going into a history of the particular dairy or the various cases 
of poisoning, it will be sufficient to say that quite a number of people were 
taken ill after partaking of the cheese, and that samples of the cheese causing 
the illness were forwarded to Dr. Voelcker for examination. This cheese, 
he says, presented nothing in appearance which could be regarded as an indi- 
cation of its spoiled condition or unwholesome quality. The taste was sharp, 
peculiar and quite different from the rich and pungent taste of well-ripened 
old cheese ; but it was not sufficiently characteristic of its unquestionably 
poisonous properties. He says : — " Having analyzed at different times cheese 



474 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

which produced bad effects when taken in any quantity, I cautioned my 
assistants not to take too much of it, and invited them to taste the cheese 
sent. Certain chemicals, which are sometimes put into cheese, can to a cer- 
tain extent be recognized by the peculiar taste which they impart. I tasted 
it myself, and although I took a piece only the size of a hazel nut, I felt its 
effects four hours after having tasted it. Both my assistants, who had taken 
no more at the most than a quarter of an ounce each, five hours afterward 
were violently attacked with vomiting and pain in the bowels ; one of them 
was ill all night, and scarcely able to follow his usual work next day. Both 
complained of a nasty mercurial taste, which seemed to remain with them 
for many hours after partaking of the cheese. 

" On a former occasion I found sulphate of zinc or white vitriol in a cheese 
which caused sickness, and in another instance I detected in cheese sul^^hate 
of coj)per. My attention, therefore, naturally was directed to search for 
metallic poisons ; but though carefully operating on large quantities, I failed 
to detect even traces of zinc, copper, mercury, antimony, arsenic, or any of 
the metallic poisons which might possibly have imparted injurious properties 
to the cheese. Having failed to detect any mineral poison I next directed 
my attention to the examination of the organic constituents : the quantitative 
general analysis gave the following results : 

Water 37.88 

Organic constituents 58.04 

Mineral 4.08 

Total / 100.00 

Containing salt 1.33 

" The proportion of water in this cheese was rather large, considering 
that it must have been cut for some time, and have lost water by evaporation. 
On further examining it I found it remarkably sour, and had no difficulty in 
detecting an unusually large quantity of fatty acids, which if not poisonous 
themselves are the vehicle conveying the peculiar organic poison which 
appears to be generated sometimes in cheese undergoing a peculiar kind of 
fermentation. 

'^ Probably the poison generated in this modified decay of cheese is iden- 
tical with the so-called sausage poison, which is sometimes found in German 
sausages, especially those made of coagulated blood, A similar poison 
appears to be generated sometimes in pickled salmon, smoked sprats, pork, 
tainted veal, bacon and hams. Bacon and hams when not properly cured, 
and fat meat, kept in a damp, badly-ventilated cellar, are very apt to become 
more or less injurious to health, and even butter after it has turned rancid ; 
and similar organic matters are liberated in it, which exist in this cheese in a 
free state, acts as a poison in most cases. Singularly enough, some people 
are not affected by these subtle organic poisons. 

"The poison of cheese was known in Germany as long ago as 1820, and 
probably even earlier. A great deal has been written on the subject, but we 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 475 

are yet as far as ever from knowing the composition of this virulent 
poison." 

Dr. VoELCKEK further states that cases of poisoning by cheese, in which 
no mineral poison can be detected, occur much more frequently than is gene- 
rally supposed. And it appears that cheese kept in damp, badly-ventilated 
places, or where too much whey is left, or indeed, all the circumstances which 
tend to produce a too acid curd, and to generate fatty acids are apt to pro- 
duce this peculiar poison. 

Dr. VoELCKEE regrets that we have no means of detecting this invidious 
poison, which, in a great many cases, has produced fatal results ; and he 
remarks that, what is indeed strange, j^oisonous cheese of this character when 
kept until it becomes quite decayed loses its poisonous properties and becomes 
harmless. 

Poisonous cheese always exhibits a strong acid reaction when tested with 
litmus paper. A slight acid reaction marks all fresh cheese, but while the 
outside of good old cheese is ammoniacal, the outside of cheese in which this 
poison occurs is acid. 

SCHWEITZER KASE. 

The large element of foreign population now among us, and more espe- 
cially that from the German States, has introduced a demand for certain arti- 
cles which a few years ago were almost unknown in many parts of the country. 
It is but natural that foreign tastes should thus creep in upon us by degrees, 
and become more or less adopted by our native population. The Schweitzer 
Kase and Limberger cheese, a few years ago were imported, and perhaps are 
to some extent at the present time, but their manufacture now having been 
established in this country, there is no necessity for such importation. Such 
cheese can be made here of equal quality with the imported article, and can 
be afforded also at less cost. 

I have frequently had occasion to compare our Schweitzer Kase, or Swiss 
cheese with the foreign article, and in the presence of good judges, who 
pronounced the American quite equal in quality and peculiar flavor to the 
foreign manufacture. Swiss cheese when eaten before it has acquired that 
strong, rank flavor which is deemed essential, or at least seems to suit the 
taste of a majority of foreigners, is very palatable, and many Americans who 
have been accustomed to eat of it, grow fond of it, and prefer it to our best 
grades of Cheddars. 

A few years since I visited a factory in Oneida Co., erected for the pur- 
pose of making Swiss cheese, and \vhere a very superior article was produced. 
The manager here was a Swiss cheese-maker, and the arrangements and 
machinery of the establishment were after the most approved Swiss pattern. 
In the proper curing of Swiss cheese a room in which a low, even tempera- 
ture can be secured is requisite, hence a cellar basement of stone is deemed 
important for a good curing-room. The factory referred to was erected for 
manufacturing milk from about two hundred cows. The building is about 



476 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

eighty-four feet long by thirty-four feet broad, and is placed upon a side-hill 
so as to have a stone basement or cellar, some eight feet high and extending 
under the entire upper structure, which is of wood. 

The cheeses are pressed in two sizes — the one thirty-two inches, and the 
other twenty-eight inches in diameter, but both are uniformly but five and 
a-half inches thick. The larger-sized cheese will weigh when cured some- 
where near a hundred pounds, and the curing process will require at least 
three months. 

The milk is made up fresh from the cow, that is, the morning's and even- 
ing's mess separately. As soon as the morning's milk is received it is turned 
into a large copper kettle, hanging upon a crane which swings over the fire 
in a broad, old-fashioned fire-place. When the temperature of the milk indi- 
cates 81® the rennet is added. After the milk has coagulated a circular wire- 
breaker attached to a long handle is introduced, the curd broken up, and the 
whole mass stirred with the breaker. The kettle is now swung over the fire 
and the stirring kept up until the mass indicates a temperature of 120° to 
125°, when it is moved back on the crane from the fire into the room, and 
the stirring continued for half an hour longer, or until the curd is sufficiently 
cooked. This is indicated by its firm and elastic condition, similar to curd 
properly " cooked " in ordinary cheese-making. 

A cloth strainer is now introduced under the curd, the ends of the cloth 
brought together, when the mass is lifted out of the kettle, leaving the whey 
behind. It is then immediately put to press and remains in press about two 
hours, when it is taken out of press and plunged in cold water. Here it 
remains for two hours or more, or until thoi'oughly cooled, when it is 
returned again to the press, where it remains four or five hours. 

In pressing, light, adjustable hoops, made of thin strips of elm wood, are 
used. They are arranged with cords upon the ends, so that the size of the 
hoop may be contracted or expanded at pleasure. On removing the cheese 
from the press to the curing-room, these hoops are kept upon the cheese, and 
serve in l-ieu of bandages. 

No salt is used in the curd at the time of making as is usual in other styles 
of cheese, but the salt is applied in the curing-room ; here dry salt in small 
quantities is daily sprinkled over the cheese during the space of three months, 
and after that they are treated with salt every other day. Every two or three 
days during the curing process the cheeses are washed with brine, which 
serves to remove any mold that may be inclined to form or adhere to the rinds. 
These are briefly the main features in the process. The cheese, while 
curing, appears to be more elastic, and will not readily break and fall to 
pieces as that made in the ordinary way. When well made they are mellow 
and rich, and of a sweet, delicate flavor if eaten before they acquire age. 
They are quite porous, which is esteemed a mark of good quality. After 
getting age they are apt to take on a peculiar rank flavor, which nevertheless 
is regarded as delicious by those who have acquired a taste for it. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 477 

Good Swiss clieese usua,lly brings an advanced price over the best grades 
of factory cheese as usually manufactured, which, I suppose, is on account 
of the small quantity made, and the supply being kept within the demand. 

PINE-APPLE CHEESE. 

So far as the manipulation of milk, and the treatment of curds are con- 
cerned, the making of pine-apple cheese does not differ materially from that 
of cheese commonly made at factories. The diamond-like impressions on the 
rind, by which it is made to resemble somewhat, the scales on the pine-apple 
fruit, are produced by the meshes of the net in which the cheese is sustained 
to cure. The main features in the manufacture consist of the molds and nets 
which give the desired shape and appearance to this style of cheese. 

The molds are capable of holding from six to ten pounds of curd. The 
mold is formed of four scantling, four or five inches square, by scooping out 
"one corner of each in the right shape, and placing them together. The tim- 
bers are long enough to alloAV a neck six or seven inches long, and three or 
more in diameter, to be grooved from the same corners, and when they are 
put together the curd is put into the mold through this neck, the neck also 
being filled with curd pressed in. The separate pieces of timber are bolted 
firmly together two and two, thus leaving it in two parts. These two parts 
are held firmly together by a hoop of strap iron tightened by wedges. When 
the cheese is to be taken out, the wedges are loosened, the hoop slipped ofi" 
and the mold taken apart. The pressure is applied by any press, provided 
with a follower that will fit the neck, into which it is forced, and the whey 
escapes at the joining of the molds, which open a little by the pressure. The 
cheese-cloth is used the same as in the common hoop, though it should be 
pressed hard for a while to obliterate the impressions of the folds in the 
cloth. The follower should be a little concave at the bottom and force the 
curd down to a level with the curd in the mold. The whey should be 
entirely removed, and the cheese rendered as compact as possible. 

To eifect this a follower sharpened in the form of a bodkin at the lower 
end, long enough to reach near the bottom of the mold, should be forced into 
the cheese immediately after the curd has been somewhat compacted by the 
follower, and the orifice filled up with new curd, if there is not enough already 
in the mold to fill it. 

After it has remained in press a sufficient length of time it is removed, 
and a net is placed upon it similar to a cabbage net, knit with meshes half to 
three-fourths of an inch square, when they are suspended by the tightening 
cord to hooks driven into the wall or other place for the purpose. "When 
thoroughly dried they should be smeared with sweet whey butter. After 
hanging long enough to get their shape confirmed, the net is removed and 
they are set upon the large end upon trenchers until perfectly cured. During 
the whole process of curing they are to be rubbed as often as necessary to 
give them a fair skin and keep away insects. 



1 



478 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

The molds are sometimes made of blocks of oak timber, about twenty- 
inches long and ten inches square. They are sawed lengthwise through the 
middle, and each half is carved or worked out in the shape of a pine-apple 
one-half in each part. Then a groove is cut about two and a-half inches i 
diameter, for passing the curd into the mold. 

Some manufacturers, after taking the cheese from tlie press, trim them,' 
and then put on the nets, hanging the cheese for a short tim.e in water of 
120°. This is to soften the rind, that they may the better receive the impres- 
sion of the net, which is done by taking them from the water while enveloped 
in the nets, placing them in a frame and straining the nets tightly over them 
by means of screws. They are then hung up as before described, to harden, 
and finally, are set on shelves having suitable hollows or concavities for the 
cheese to rest upon. The nets are made from flax twine, and will last seve- 
ral years. 

The labor and trouble of making pine-apple cheese is so much, that a large 
price must be obtained in order to make its manufacture a paying business. 

STILTON CHEESE. 

Cheese of this character at present is of no commercial importance to 
American dairymen. Still it is possible small quantities may in time be made 
for home consumption. Stilton is made from the morning's mess of milk, to 
which has been added the cream of the night's milk, in proportion of a quart 
of cream for every ten quarts of milk. The milk and cream having been 
nicely mingled together, is set for coagulation in a small tub in which there 
has been previously arranged a linen strainer. The mass is set in the ordi- 
nary way with rennet, and when coagulation is perfected the curd is cut 
across in large checks, and without further breaking, is lifted gently into a 
willow basket for the whey to escape. No heat, except the natural heat as it 
comes from the cow, is used during the process. After the whey has sepa- 
rated from the curd in the basket, as described above, the curd is carefully 
placed in a hoop, and is then turned every three hours, say four or five times 
during the day. No pressure is applied except its own weight, and it remains 
in the hoop without cloth or bandage, being turned from day to day, as 
before described, until sufficiently consolidated to hold together, when it is 
taken out, and a bandage pinned about it, and then it goes upon the shelf to 
cure. The hoop is seven inches in diameter and eight inches high; it is 
pierced with holes, and it has two little followers fitting above and below the 
cheese, each pierced with holes for the escape of the whey. Two " setters " 
or covers with rims are also provided and pierced with holes, so that in turn- 
ing the cheese all that is needed is to change ends without taking the cheese 
from the hoop. No salt is used in the curds— its application being from the 
outside after the cheese is taken from the hoop. The cheese is kept at a tem- 
perature of about 70° for some time, and then is placed in a warm room for 
the development of the blue mold, which is considered of prime importance. 



Praciical Dairy Husbandry. 479 

improving hard, dry cheese. 
When a cheese which has been much salted and kept very dry, is washed 
several times in soft water, and then laid in a cloth moistened with wine or 
vinegar, it gradually loses its saltness, and from being hard and dry, becomes 
soft and mellow, provided it be rich cheese. This simple method of improv- 
ing cheese is worth knowing. It is generally practiced in Switzerland, where 
cheeses are kept stored for many years, and if they were not very salt and dry 
they would soon be the prey of worms and mites. A dry Stilton cheese may 
thus be much improved. 

COTTAGE, OR DUTCH CHEESE. • 

Cottage cheese is in some sections called Dutch cheese or curds. It is the 
curd of sour milk drained from the whey, pressed into balls or molded in 
small fancy shapes, and eaten when fresh, or soon after it is made. Some 
people are very fond of Dutch cheese or curds, and the process of manufac- 
ture is so simple and so well known, that we suppose every " good house- 
wife " is well posted in regard to its making. 

The milk is allowed to sour and become loppered or thick, when it is 
gently heated, which facilitates the separation of the whey. The curds are 
then gathered up, salted, or otherwise, to suit the taste, and pressed in small 
molds, or formed with the hand into suitable shape, when it is ready for the 
table and may be used immediately. In cool weather, when milk does not 
readily thicken, the sour milk may be put in a suitable vessel set in hot water 
over the range. The milk is then stirred for a few minutes, when the whey 
will begin to separate, and it is removed, and another batch may be treated 
in the same manner. 

In summer some use large cans, having a spiggot near the bottom; the 
sour milk is placed in these cans, and allowed to stand in the sun to thicken. 
The heat of the sun will be sufficient to separate the whey, which may then 
be drawn off through the spiggot. The curds are then removed to "a sink 
having a slatted bottom, over which a strainer cloth is placed. The curds 
thrown upon this strainer cloth are soon drained of the whey, when it is ready 
to be pressed into balls with the hand, or molded into forms. 

Sometimes this kind of cheese is potted and left to decompose, and when 
it has acquired a strong, villainous smell, it is regarded as most delicious by 
those who have acquired a taste for eating it in this state. In some markets, 
cottage or Dutch cheese finds a ready sale, and quite a profit is made by cer- 
tain butter-makers, in turning their sour milk into this product. 

POPULAR WEIGHTS, BOXING FOR MARKET, ETC., ETC. 

I have referred, in another place, to the Cheddar shapes as the most popu- 
lar for export. Cheese weighing from forty to sixty-five pounds are on the 
whole the sizes most commonly made at the factories. For home consump- 
tion the growing feeling is for smaller cheeses than those above-named. A 
cheese of thirty pounds weight is a very desirable size for our home trade. 



480 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

It is true the cost of manufacture may be greater, and the shrinkage is more, 
still the consumer can afford to pay a better price for small-sized cheeses, 
because of their convenience and less waste from decay and drying, incident to 
large cheese, which must remain a longer time on hand before being consumed. 

In boxing cheese, whether for export or the home trade, the greatest care 
should be taken to have the packages well made, and wuth an extra band on 
the lower edge. Cheese should never be sent to market until they have 
properly ripened, and then they shoiild be placed in boxes that fit — boxes that 
slip down easily over the cheese, but not so large as to allow " shaking," or 
a movement from one side to the other in the box, nor in so small a package 
as to prevent their being readily removed from the package M'ithout breaking 
it. Good, substantial scale-boards should be placed on both sides of the 
cheese, and no other material is so well adajDted to the purpose where cheese 
is to be exported, or is to remain some time in the package during its transit 
to market. For short distances heavy straw paper may be used, but care 
should be taken not to pack with newspaper, as the moisture from the cheese 
will reduce it to a pulp, giving the cheese a very bad appearance on removal 
from the box. 

When the cheese is in place the sides of the package should come ujd just 
even with the top surface of the cheese. If it is below this surface the cheese 
will be liable to be broken and marred about the edges. If the rim of the 
box be a little higher than the cheese, it should be trimmed down after the 
cheese is in the box with a sharp drawing-knife, and then covers that fit 
closely should be adjusted. Sometimes the boxes are very imperfectly made, 
with, loose-fitting covers that are liable to fall off in rolling the cheese from 
the scales, or in moving from place to place. In such cases the covers are 
sometimes tacked in place with nails, but when nails are used,. care should be 
taken that they do not reach through the wood and into the cheese. 

The boxes should be neatly branded with the name of the factory, or if 
from farm dairies with the name of the dairyman, and for this purpose stencil 
plates are most convenient, while the lettering makes a neater appeai'ance 
than when the names are burned on with branding-irons. 



BUTTER MANUFACTURE. 



The question of butter-making has now become one of great importance. 
In my tour through Great Britain I took some pains to examine this subject, 
and comj)are butter-making abroad with our new system as inaugurated in 
Orange County, N. Y. The system has proved a great success, is being 
rapidly introduced in new districts, and has attracted attention not only in 
this country, but in Europe. 

There is no people, perhaps, on the face of the earth more fastidious about 
their food than the better classes in London. Possessed of immense wealth, 
they pay liberally for extra qualities of food, particularly the products of the 
dairy. Good butter they will have at any cost. Their finest grades come 
from the continent — Normandy, Holstein and the Channel Islands. It is 
worth from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty shillings per 
hundred weight, or say about thirty cents gold per pound, wholesale, while 
Canadian, the only butter imported from America, sells for fifty-four to ninety 
shillings per hundred weight, and Irish extra, from one hundred and eight to 
one hundred and twelve shillings per hundred weight. 

Their best butter formerly came from Ireland, but the complaint now is, 
that Irish butter is too salt, and lacks the delicate flavor and aroma of that 
which comes from the continent. Irish butter is usually packed in stout oak 
firkins, securely headed. Normandy and Holstein butter is in small pack- 
ages, flaring at the top, resembling the Orange County tub. It is excellent 
in flavor and texture, very slightly salted, and of a rich golden color. 

In England I saw butter made for the Queen's table, at the Royal 
Dairy, near Windsor Castle. The milk is set in porcelain pans, resting on 
marble tables. The walls, the ceiling and the floor of the milk room are of 
china, and the arrangements for ventilation are the best that can be devised. 
Fountains of water are constantly playing on all sides of the room, which 
helps to maintain an even temperature. The churn is of tin and the butter 
is worked with two thin wooden paddles. The whole establishment, from 
the milk-room to the stables, is the most perfect specimen of neatness that 
can be imagined. I need not say that the butter is excellent. 
31 



482 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

Cream of average richness, according to the analysis of Dr. Voelckek, 
contains in one hundred parts : 

Water, 64.80 

Butter (pure fatty uialters), 25 . 40 

Caseine and milk sugar, 7. 61 

Mineral matters (ash), 2. 19 

100.00 

He says, that on an average one quart of good cream yields from thirteen to 
fifteen ounces commercial butter. Occasionally cream is very rich ; thus Mr. 
HoESBFALL statcs that a quart of cream in his dairy yielded one pound of 
butter when the cows were out to grass, and no less than twenty-two to 
twenty-four ounces when the cows were fed in the barn with rape cake and 
other substances rich in oil. 

The first portions of cream which rise are always thin, but rich in fat, a 
fact that is explained by the circumstance that during milking and the subse- 
quent agitation to which milk is exposed, a portion of the milk globules get 
broken ; in consequence of which their light fatty contents, liberated from 
the denser caseine shells, rise to the surface with greater facility, and 
then occupy less room than the unbroken milk globules, which, on account of 
their specific gravity, are more sluggish in rising. Generally speaking, cream 
yields more butter when its bulk in proportion to that of the milk from which 
it is taken is small, and vice versa. 

The leading principles to be observed in butter-making, are cleanliness and 
temperature. Experience has shown that a temperature of about 60° 
and not higher than 65°, is most conducive to the rising of the cream glob- 
ules, and the more uniformly the temperature can be kept at 60° through 
winter and summer, the more readily the cream will be thrown up, while the 
milk will be kept sweet, provided the dairy is dry and properly ventilated. 
On no account should the temperature fall below 55°. 

In cooling milk for butter-making this point is important. It must not be 
imagined that the lower the temperature is allowed to sink, the more cream will 
rise, for we must bear in mind that with the reduction of the temperature, the 
specific gravity of the liquid is greater, and the rising of the cream or milk 
globules checked accordingly. Every precaution as to habits of cleanliness and 
the keeping from the milk and cream any article, plant, or impurity, which 
can by any possibility communicate a taint should be rigidly adopted. The 
pails and strainer should be washed [scalded with boiling water) and well 
rinsed in cold water, and then sufifered to dry in the open air. Every article 
connected with the dairy should be treated in a similar manner, as there 
is nothing so prejudicial to new milk as being mixed with ever so small 
a quantity of that which has become sour, and nothing so diflScult to 
eradicate as the traces left in any vessel of that which has become stale 
and decomposed. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 483 

spoiling i2f the churn. 
Perfectly good cream is often spoiled in the churn, when the dairymaid 
has been negligent in properly cleansing it. "When the wood once absorbs 
this milk taint it is very difficult to eradicate it by subsequent cleansing. 

MANNER or CHURNING. 

During the process of churning a certain uniformity of temperature must 
be observed, or the butter will be soft and spongy instead of being firm and 
compact. The agitation also of the cream should be regular — neither too 
quick nor too slow. If the agitation is too quick the butter will make and 
unmake itself before the churner is aware of it, as too rapid motion induces 
fermentation, which, when it has reached a certain point is entirely destruc- 
tive of anything like the possibility of making even moderately good or well 
tasted butter. If, on the other hand, the motion be too slow, the agitators 
in the churn fail to produce the desired separation of the component parts 
of the cream ; and the consequence is, that after a good deal of time spent 
in lazy action, the churner is just as far from his butter as he was at the 
beginning of his labors. The best temperature for the cream in churning is 
from 55° to 60°. 

EXPERIMENTS IN TEMPERATURE. 

Some years ago a series of carefully conducted experiments were made in 
Scotland to determine the temperature at which butter can be best and easiest 
obtained from the cream. The following table exhibits the mean temperature 
of the cream used in each experiment : 

1st experiment, cream stood at 57° 

3d " " " eo'' 

3d " " " 62° 

4lli " " " 66° 

5Lli " " " 70° 

The butter produced in the first experiment was of the very best quality, 
rich, firm and well tasted. That produced in the second experiment was not 
perceptibly inferior to the first. That produced in the third experiment was 
more soft and spongy, and that produced in the fourth and fifth experiments, 
decidedly inferior in every respect to any of the former specimens. 

From these experiments it appears that cream should not be kept at a high 
temperature in the process of churning, and the experimenters conclude that 
the best temperature to commence the operation of churning is about 55°, 
and at no time in the operation ought it to exceed 65° ; while on the con- 
trary, if at any time the cream should be under 50°, the labor will be much 
increased without any proportionate advantage being obtained. 

CHARACTER OF GOOD BUTTER. 

Mr. Stevens well remarks that when butter is properly churned both as 
to time and temperature, it becomes firm with very little working, and is 
tenacious, but its most desirable state is that of waxy, when it is easily 



484 PRA.CTICAL Dairy Husbandry. 

molded into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable length without 
breaking. It is only in this state that butter possesses that rich, nutty flavor 
and smell which imj)art so high a degree of pleasure in eating it, and which 
enhance its value manifold. It is not always necessary to taste butter in 
judging of it ; the smooth, unctuous feel in rubbing a little between the 
finger and thumb, expresses at once its richness of quality ; the nutty smell 
indicates a similar taste, and the bright, glistening cream-colored surface shows 
its high state of cleanliness. 

FKEEING rKOlI BUTTEEMILK, ETC. 

When butter forms the churning should cease, and the mass be taken out and 
cleansed from any buttermilk which may still be incorporated with it. The 
best test that this has been satisfactorily performed is the fresh water running 
from the butter as pure and bright as when poured over it. It should be 
recollected that the less butter is handled the better. Warm hands, however 
clean, are apt to impart a taint ; and the difficulty of keeping them so per- 
fectly clean as is absolutely necessary, appears to be almost insurmountable. 
The ladle and butter-workei', therefore, should be used in all the necessary 
manipulations. 

THE MODEEK METHOD OF MANAGING MILK 

for butter-making is to have a spring house for setting the milk ; churning the 
cream rather than the whole milk. It is true there are those who contend 
that a fine quality of butter can be made by churning the " whole milk;" but 
such butter is apt to have more of the caseine or cheesy particles of the milk 
in its composition, than when the cream alone is churned ; and this caseine 
will injure its keeping qualities. 

It has been contended, too, that when the whole milk is churned more 
butter is obtained than by setting the milk and churning the cream. If the 
butter contains a considerable portion of the caseine of the milk, this would 
readily explain the reason for the extra quantity claimed. But, however this 
may be, those who make " fancy butter," and have had long experience in the 
art, prefer to make their butter by churning the cream, and it is the course I 
should recommend. 

MILK-EOOM FOE FAEM DAIEIES. 

For farm dairies the Ceoziee milk cellar would seem to be a very good 
model, as the building can be erected at moderate expense. A committee of 
the American Institute Farmers' club, consisting of Mr. J. B. Lyman and 
Col. F. D. CuETis, visited this establishment, and their report upon it is as 
follows : — " The walls are thirty-six by eighteen feet, and it is divided into 
ice-house, milk-room and butter-kitchen. Two tubes or conductors go down 
from the upper part of the ice-house. They are made of boards eight inches 
wide and an inch thick, with many holes bored in them. The holes allow the 
cold air to enter from the ice, and it pours in a stream from the mouth of 
the tube into the milk-room. The temperature of the air as it comes out at 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 485 

the mouth of the tubes is about 35°. As the milk-room has thick walls and 
the windows are high this flood of air at 35° is able to lower the mercury to 
62°, and even lower, in July. Sometimes he closes one tube to keep the 
room from growing too cold. The draught is the strongest in the hottest 
weather. In spring and fall there is little current, and in winter, when the 
fire in the stove is constantly burning, the draught would be the other way. 
But then the mouths of the ice-tubes are closed. By this arrangement the 
desired temperature is secured the season through, and there is no difference 
between the June butter and the January butter. He makes June butter the 
year round. He gets ten cents per pound over the highest market price. 
Making, say, two hvmdred pounds a week, his gain is |20 a week by having 
the best arrangement for butter-making. Thus his milk-house pays for itself 
every nine months, to say nothing of the greatly increased facilities for doing 
work afforded by a pump, churn and stove so convenient. He consumes 
about a ton of anthracite in the four coldest months, and a slight allowance is 
to be made for wood used in summer to heat water for washing and scalding." 

THE BEST TEMPEEATUEK FOE SETTING MILK 

to get the cream is about 60° to 62°. The range of temperature should run 
no higher than 65°. The butter-makers of Orange Co., N. Y., are of the 
opinion that the best quality of butter is made from cream that has been 
obtained at a temperature a little below 60°. Cream can be obtained in a 
short time, and in large quantity by raising the milk to a temperature near 
boiling and then setting aside to cool; but such cream has more of the 
caseine or cheesy j)articles of the milk mingled with it than milk set without 
the application of artificial heat, and the butter will be injured in its keeping 
qualities. 

COLOE AND TEXTUEE. 

In butter-making it is important to have the butter come of a good color 
and of a texture that is hard and has a waxy consistency, and that will 
retain that peculiar aroma which imparts so much pleasure in eating it. 

THE MODEEN MILK PAN. 

When it is not convenient to have a spring-house, the best arrangement 
with which I am acquainted for setting the milk is the Jennings jjan. It is 
of tin and sets upoa a shallow wooden vat, which is to be filled with water 
from the well or pen stock, as the case may be, and thus the milk is rapidly 
divested of its animal heat, and a pretty even temperature maintained while 
the cream is rising. These pans are of different sizes to accommodate differ- 
ent sized dairies, and each one is intended to accommodate the entire mess of 
milk from the herd at one milking. Four pans are all that are needed for a 
dairy, or at least with that number of pans the milk maybe kept until thirty- 
six hours old before skimming. After the pans have been once filled the 
milk that has stood the longest is skimmed and drawn oflT, and is then ready 



486 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



for the next milking. The age of the milk in the different pans from day to 
day will be more readily seen by the following diagram : 



Netv Milk. 



Milk 12 hottks 

OLD. 



Milk 24 hours 

OLD. 



Milk 36 houes 

OLD. 



[3 

Where a stream of cold water can be kept constantly flowing under the 
pans, expensive milk-cellars can be dispensed with, and very good results 
obtained in properly constructed rooms that are kept well ventilated. In the 
Jennings pan the milk is set from three to four inches deep and there is an 
arrangement of pipes for drawing off either the milk or water with conve- 
nience. These pans are provided with gauze net-work covers to be used as 
occasion requires for keeping out dust or flies. The general form of these 
pans is represented in the subjoined illustration (Figure 1). 

The Jewett pan is of very similar construction to the one just named, 
except that the water underneath the milk is conducted in channels instead 
of being spread out in a thin sheet as in the Jennings invention. 

Mr. Jewett describes his apparatus as follows : — The illustration (see 




FlGUEB 1. 

figure 2) represents a full set of pans, arranged with fixtures necessary for 
using them, for butter factories, or dairies large or small, by making them of 
any size required ; for factories, as wide as can be conveniently skimmed from 
the center, and long enough to obtain the required surface, it being perfectly 
practical to make them large enough for one hundred and fifty cows ; for 
more cows additional sets may be added. The way to use them is, put one 
milking of the entire dairy into one pan, adjusting the faucet on the supply 
pipe so as to use just water enough to extract the animal heat from the milk, 
and keep it at the desired temperature while the cream is rising — from 60'' 
to 62° ; at the time the fourth is wanted for use the first will be ready to 
skim ; then stop the water from running into the pan, and open the faucet 
near the bottom of the pan, that a sufficient quantity of water may run out, 
while the milk is skimmed and run off to enable the milk-maid to clean the 
pan. The bottom of the pans being protected from the warm atmosphere in 



Fravtical Dairy Husbandry. 



48Y 



the room by tlie tables on which they set, the inside bottom being covered with 
milk, the means of cooling is hidden, yet it is done by keeping the milk cool 
in a warm, dry room without cooling or dampening the room, which is to be 
desired by butter-makers, thus reversing the process of carrying the milk to 
a cool place, where the benefits to be derived are so intermingled with dele- 
terious influences that it is a good illustration of the saying, you must take 
the bitter with the sweet. This way of handling the milk in my pans, besides 
reducing the labor more than one-half, enhances the net proceeds of the dairy, 
both in quantity and quality of the butter, fully twenty per cent. With a 
book of instructions any good tin-smith can make and set them up. 

As given in the engraving, one of the series of pans, A A, is represented 
as broken away to show the internal arrangement. These pans are provided 




FlGUEE 2. 

with a space, B, between their top and bottom walls. Within this space 
are a number of compartments, communicating with each other at alternate 
ends, in such a manner as to form one continuous channel, zigzag in its course, 
having an inlet at a, through which warm or cold water, as needed, is 
received ; such water, after flowing through the tortuous channel formed by 
the partitions, being discharged at the outlet, h. At h is shown the opening 
through which the overflow of water is discharged ; the object being to keep 
the channel in the bottom of the pan quite filled while the water is flowing 
through it. At c is shown a faucet through which all the water in the channel 
can be drawn off. 

These pans can be made to serve the double purpose of milk-coolers or 



488 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



1 



cream-raisers, the milk being kept at any temperature desired by raising or 
lowering the temperature of the water flowing through the passages in the 
bottom of the pan. When the cream has raised and has been skimmed, the 
milk is then run off through the pipe, c?, which communicates with the main 
discharge-pipe, F, which may be placed under the floor or not, as circum- 
stances will permit ; or, if desired, the milk can be conveyed in movable 
horizontal pipes from the pans into an adjoining room on the same floor. The 
pipe seen attached to the side of the room and above the rows of pans is the 
source of supply from which water is conducted to the base of the pans. 
For cooling, the water is received from a spring or reservoir ; but for warm- 
ing, from boilers or other appropriate apj)aratus. 

THE CEEAM THAT PIEST RISES 

is the best ; and to make choice butter, the cream should always be taken from 
the milk before it becomes old and sour. The greater the decomposition of 
the milk the more will the cream be affected, and as a consequence, the more 
difficult will it be to obtain from it a nice quality of butter. 

KEEPING QUALITIES. 

Butter, to be good, must have some keeping qualities, for it cannot be 
consumed from day to day as it is made. Well made butter, if properly 
cared for, should retain its flavor and sweetness for months ; bat we cannot 
expect to obtain such butter from cream that has been badly managed. 

STRAINING THE CREAM. 

Cream should have a uniform consistency, when it goes to the churn. If 
portions of it are thick and mingled with hard, dry particles or " cream- 
skins," the butter will contain " white caps," or be flecked throughout, giving 
it not only a bad ajipearance, but injuring its quality. When cream is set 
in shallow pans in. the old way, the butter is very liable to be thus affected. 
The cream strainer here is of very great advantage, as it reduces the cream to 
a like consistency in all its parts, breaking down the " skins " and jDreparing 
the cream, so that in churning, the butter will come evenly. Baker's Excel- 
sior Cream Strainer, illustrations of which we give in figures 3 and 4, is the 
best that we have seen for the purpose, and gives valuable aid in the butter 
dairy. Cream that has been raised in a temperature of 60° to 62°, should be 
churned at about the same temperature. Butter-makers do not like to have 
the cream churned afa temperature above 64°, as it injures the butter. If 
the temperature fall below 55°, the labor of churning, as has been remarked, 
will be prolonged. I do not believe in great haste in churning, or the shortest 
time that cream can be turned into butter. 

CHURNING TOO QUICK. 

One often hears of churns in which it is claimed the butter will come in 
" three minutes." It is possible that good butter may be got from the cream 
in that time, but I have yet to be convinced that it can be done. That cream 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



489 



can be churned into butter in three minutes I am aware, and although the 
butter may be tolerable for present use, I have never been able to get a good 
keepable article when the churning was done in so short a space of time. 
The butter globules are inclosed or surrounded by thin pellicles of caseine. 
In churning, these are broken and sej^arated from the oily particles. If the 
churning is done rapidly the separation is imperfect, and hence we get an 
article of butter in which there is too large a proportion of the shells of 
caseine. It is the caseine and nitrogenized constituent of milk that is liable 
to decomposition and which injures the flavor of butter. 

COMPOSITION" OF BUTTER — INFLUENCE OF CASEINE SHELLS. 

The philosophy or manner in which caseine injures the flavor of butter 
has been well explained by Voelcker. He says : — " Butter consists mainly 
of a mixture of several fats, among which palmitin, a solid crystalizable sub- 
stance, is the most important. Palmitin, with a little stearine, constitutes 
about sixty-eight per cent, of pure butter. Mixed with these solid fats are 





FlGUBB 3. 



FlGtJKE 4. 



about two per cent, of odoriferous oils. The peculiar flavor and odor of butter 
are owing to the presence of this small proportion of these peculiar oils, viz., 
butyrine, caproin and caprylin. In butter, as it comes upon our table, we find 
besides these fatty matters about sixteen or eighteen per cent, of water ; one 
to two per cent, of salt; and v,ariable small quantities of fragments of caseine 
shells. The more perfectly the latter are removed by kneading under water, 
the better butter keeps ; for caseine on exposure to the air in a moist state, 
especially in warm weather, becomes rapidly changed into a ferment, whicli, 
acting on the last-named volatile fatty matters of butter, resolves them into 
glycerine and butyric acid, Cg Hg O4 ; caproic acid, C12 Hjg O4 ; and caprylic 
acid C]6 H16 O4 . The occurrence of these volatile uncombined fatty acids in 
rancid butter, not only spoils flavor, but renders it more or less unwholesome." 
If all the shells of caseine could be separated from the butter, it could be 



490 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

preserved readily without salt. Pure fat or oil is very easily kept sweet. In 
some countries butter is melted and the impurities taken out by " trying " it 
like lard. Of course butter treated in this way loses its aroma and texture, 
but I mention the fact for the purpose of showing the principle to be observed 
in obtaining butter of good keeping quality. In churning, I do not care to 
have butter come sooner than from half to three-quarters of an hour. The 
butter-makers of Orange Co., say that the churning process should occupy 
from forty-five minutes to one hour. Their opinions are worthy of considera- 
tion, because they make an article that is unrivaled in the market, and from 
long and varied experience they ought to be able to settle this point definitely. 
No one should attempt to make butter without . 

USING A &OOD THEKMOMETEE, 

especially in preparing the cream for churning. Old and experienced butter- 
makers may guess at temperature pretty accurately, but the temperature of 
the surrounding atmosphere varies so much from day to day, that no one can 
be sure of being right, without an accurate instrument for determining the 
degree of heat required in the cream to produce the best results. 

MANAGEMENT EOK MAKING PHILADELPHIA BUTTER. 

In the management for the noted " Philadelphia butter," the spring-house 
is of stone, about eighteen feet wide and twenty-four feet long. Its founda- 
tion is deeply set in a hill-side, its floor being about four feet below the sur- 
face of the ground on the lower side. The floor of the spring-house is of oak, 
laid on sand or gravel. The water is allowed to spread over this floor to the 
depth of three or four inches, and the overflow passes to a tank outside the 
building. Raised platforms or walks are arranged on the floor of the spring- 
house for the purpose of moving about the room in handling the milk, etc. 
The walls of the room are about ten feet high, arranged at the top with win- 
dows, covered with wire gauze so as to give ventilation. Deep pans, of small 
diameter, and well painted on the outside are used. They are provided with 
bails, so as to be convenient in handling. The milk is strained into these 
vessels to the depth of about three inches, and they are set directly upon the 
oak floor, the water surrounding them to the depth of the milk, maintaining 
a temperature of about 58°. 

The milk sets here about twenty-four hours, when the cream is removed 
and placed in deep vessels holding from ten to twelve gallons. As the tem- 
perature of the room does not at any time rise above 58° or 59°, the cream 
is kept at this temperature until it goes to the churn. In some establishments 
there is a place in the spring-house, where the depth of water is eight or ten 
inches, for the especial purpose of placing the pails of cream, and where they 
are kept until the cream acquires a slightly acid taste, when it is ready for 
churning. The essential feature in the management of milk, is to keep the 
milk and cream near a temperature of 60°. And when a uniform tempera- 
ture of this kind is preserved, the largest quantity of the best quality of 



I 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



491 



butter will be secured. The cliurning is usually performed twice a week, 
though in some dairies which manufacture the "Philadelphia butter," the 
cream is churned but once a week. In removing the cream from the milk the 
Orange Co, plan is to use a funnel-shaped cup, with a long handle, dipping 
off the cream until the blue milk makes its appearance. In the Pennsylvania 
plan the skimming is done Avith a concave tin scoop, perforated with small 
holes. The churning is usually done by horse-poAver at the large establish- 
ments, and the temperature of the cream when the churns are set in motion, 
is about 62°, and just before the butter comes, cold milk or a pail of cold 
water is thrown into the churn. 

The churn is of barrel shape, revolving on a journal at each head. The 
churning occupies nearly an hour, and after the buttermilk is drawn off cold 
water is added and a few turns given to the churn, and the water is then 
drawn off. This is repeated until the water as it is drawn off is nearly free 
from milkiness. The butter is worked Avith butter-workers, a dampened cloth 
meanwhile being pressed upon it to absorb the moisture and free it of traces of 
butter-milk. The cloth is frequently dipped in cold spring-Avater and Avrung 
dry during the process of Aviping the butter. It is next salted at the rate of 
an ounce of salt to three pounds of butter, thoroughly and evenly incorpo- 
rated by means of the butter-worker. It is then removed to a table where it 
is Aveighed out and put up into pound prints. After this it goes into large tin 
trays, and is set in the Avater to harden, remaining until next morning, Avhen it 
is Avrapped in damp cloths and placed upon shelves, one above another, in the 
tin-lined cedar-tubs, Avith ice in the compartments, and then goes immediately 
to market. Matting is draAvn over the tub and it is surrounded again Avith 
oil cloth so as to keep out the hot air and dust, and the butter arrives in mar- 
ket in prime condition, commanding not unfrequently from seventy-five cents 
to one dollar per pound. 

PHILADELPHIA BUTTER PAIL. 

The following cuts (Figures 5, 6 and 7), illustrate the butter pail and 
manner of packing for market. Figure 5 shows the general form of the tub, 






FiGimE 5. 



FiGTIRB 6. 



Figure 7. 



the top or cover opening in halves. Figure 6 is a cross section showing the 
shelf with the butter prints arranged in place with sections of ice at the ends. 
Figure 7 is a perpendicular section, showing the ice chamber and ice at the 
sides, and the shelves of butter one above the other in the center. Ice is 



492 



Practical Dairy Rusbajvbry. 




Praciical Dairy Husbandry. 



493 



sometimes broken up and added to reduce the temperature, but the Orange 
Co. dairymen think a too free use of ice is apt to injure the keeping qualities 
of the butter. 

THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF BUTTEK-MAKING 

rests mainly upon six great principles : — 1st. Securing rich, clean, healthy 
milk ; milk obtained, if possible, on rich, old pastures, free from weeds. 2d. 
Setting the milk in an untainted, well-ventilated atmosphere, and keeping it 
at an even temperature while the cream is rising. 3d. Proper management 
in churning. 4th. Washing out or otherwise thoroughly expelling the butter- 
milk, and working so as not to injure the grain. 5th. Thorough and even 
incorporation of pure salt, and packing in oaken tubs, tight, clean and well 
made. 6th. Cleanliness in all the operations is of important necessity, while 
judgment and experience in churning the cream and making the butter 
must, of course, be had. 



( mT£nPIPE.ZOIl\I.BELOmSURF/!C£. 




FiGUEE 9. Gkoukd Plan.—Butteb Factoet. 

What really distinguishes the American system is the manner of setting 
the milk so as to secure an even temperature, and applying to butter-making 
the principles of association, so that the highest skill in manufacturing may 
be obtained ; in other words, the inauguration of butter factories. 

In previous pages of this volume cuts illustrating the ground plans of the 
early butter factories have been given. We introduce here the subjoined 
cuts (Figures 8 and 9) showing elevation and ground plan of G. B. Weeks' 
new butter fictory. Referring to the ground plan (Figure 9), it will be seen 
that in the arrangement the factory is quite as well adapted to cheese-making 
alone as to butter and skira-cheese manufacture. The advantage of such an 
arrangement is, that the factory may be turned at once to the making of 
whole-milk cheese or to butter and skira-cheese, as one or the other system 



494 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



may happen to be most profitable. The ground plan explains itself and needs 
no description. The upper story of the factory is for a cheese-curing room, 
and may be divided off for other purposes as well, if desired. The factory is 
regarded by many as one of the most convenient in its arrangement of any 
of the modern built establishments. 

THE WATER POOLS. 

In the butter factories the milk-room is constructed so that good ventila- 
tion is secured. It is provided with vats or tanks for holding water. These 
should be sunk in the earth in order to secure a lower or more even tempera- 
ture of water as well as for convenience in handling the milk. The pools are 
about six feet wide, and from twelve to twenty-four feet long, arranged for a 
depth of eighteen inches of water. There should be a constant flow of water 
in and out of the vats or pools, so as to secure a uniform temperature of the 
milk after it has been divested of its animal heat. The milk is set in pails, 
eight inches in diameter by twenty inches in length (see Figure 10), each 
holding fifteen quarts of milk. As fast as the milk is 
delivered, the pails are filled to the depth of from six- 
teen to seventeen inches, and plunged in the water, care 
being taken that the water comes up even with or a 
little above the milk in the pails. The temperature of 
the water should be from 48° to 56°. A pool holding 
two thousand quarts of milk should have a sufficient 
flow of water to divest the milk of its animal heat in 
less than an hour. Good, pure milk should keep sweet 
thirty-six hours when thus put in the vats, even in the 
hottest weather. When milk is kept thirty-six hours in 
FiGUKE 10. the water nearly all the cream will rise. The Orange 

Co. dairymen claim that it all rises in twenty-four hours. They say, too, 
that they get as much cream, by setting in pails on the above plan, as they can 
by setting the milk shallow in pans, and the cream is of better quality, because 
a smaller surface being exposed to the air, there is not that liability for the 
cream to get dry, which has a tendency to fleck the butter and injure its quality. 

REGULATING TEMPERATURE. 

One of the troubles of butter-making on the old system is in regulating 
the temperature of the milk-room, and in knowing when to skim the cream. 
It requires close watching. In our variable climate it is almost impossible to 
keep the milk at an uniform temperature when set in pans in the ordinary way. 
By the new system we always have an imiform temperature without trouble, 
and therefore have perfect control of the milk. Again, in the new system, the 
shells of caseine, inclosing the butter globules, are not so liable to decompose 
and injure the flavor of the butter, for it is this caseineous matter that spoils 
the butter, and even under the best management it cannot all be taken out ; 
but by exposing only a small surface to the air we effect an important gain. 




Practical Dairy Hvsbanbrt. 495 

patent chukns. 
The Orange Co. butter-makers have tried a great many patent churns, and 
they find none they like so well as the old barrel dash-churn. At the butter 
factories they use the barrel and a-half size, and about fifty quarts of sweet 
cream are put into each churn ; the cream is diluted with water, by adding 
cold water in summfer and warm in winter, at the rate of sixteen to thirty 
quarts to each churning. 

THE TEMPERATURE OF THE CREAM IN SUMMER, 

when the churns are started is a little below 60°, but in cold weather they 
are started at 64°. In warm weather ice is sometimes broken up to put in 
the churn to reduce the temperature to 56°, but it is deemed better to churn 
without ice if the cream does not go above 64° in the process of churning, as 
butter made with ice is more sensitive to heat. It requires from forty-five to 
sixty minutes to churn, when the butter should come solid and of a rich 
yellow color ; it is then taken from the churn, and thoroughly washed in cold 
spring water. In this process the ladle is used, and three times pouring on 
water is generally all that is required. It is then salted at the rate of from, 
sixteen to eighteen ounces of salt to twenty-two pounds of butter ; for butter 
intended for keeping through the winter a little more. The butter, after 
having been salted and worked over, is allowed to stand till evening, and is 
then worked a second time and packed. A buttei'-workei-, consisting of a 
lever, fastened to an inclined table, is used for working the butter. Sometimes 
in hot weather, after salting, it is taken to the spring and immersed in water, 
when it it taken out, worked over, and packed in sixty pound pails. 

WHITE OAK FIRKINS 

are used for packing, and the greatest attention is given to have them strongly 
hooped and perfectly tight, so as not to allow the least leakage. They are 
thoroughly washed in cold water before using, then in hot water, and again 
in cold water. After being filled with butter, they are headed up and a 
strono- brine poured in at the top to fill all the intervening spaces. Another 
advantao-e resulting from this butter factory system is, that the skimmed milk 
is turned into skim-cheese. The butter factories, so far as introduced, if 
managed by competent persons, have proved a success, and have revolution- 
ized the dairy product of the neighborhood. 

THEY EFFECTUALLY DO AWAY WITH GREASE 

and put upon the market a high-flavored, high priced article. Wherever 
butter factories are established, consumers go into ecstacies over their intro- 
duction. " We now know," they say, " where we can always lay hands on 
a prime article, and we do not mind the cost for a rare delicacy." 

LOSING THE AROMA. 

It is sometimes contended that the practice of washing the butter detracts 
from its fine aroma. Doubtless this is so when the washing is excessive. It 



496 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

is difficult and laborious to expel the butter milk simply by working or 
kneading. Wasting in water seems to be indispensable in removing more 
perfectly the caseinous particles and securing butter that will keep. 

BUTTEE CELLARS. 

The Orange Co. factories are provided with butter cellars, cool, well 
ventilated and perfectly free from all taints of decaying substances. It is 
needless to say that these are indispensable to the butter-maker. To private 
or family dairies, where butter alone is produced, the system is well adapted. 
The appliances are not expensive, and compared with the great advantages 
over old methods cannot be over-estimated. 

SKIMMED-CHEESE MANLTPACTUEE. 

In making skimmed-milk cheese, we do not advise that all the cream 
that will rise be taken from the milk. It is important in the realization of 
good profits to have a skim cheese of fair quality that will meet with ready 
sale at a fair price. If all the cream that can be obtained from the milk be 
removed and the milk then turned into cheese, it will lack quality, and the 
loss in price will be much more than the value of a little cream which should 
go with the skimmed milk for the purpose of improving the quality of the 
cheese, and rendering it more palatable. 

If the milk is set in cans plunged in sj^ring water, on the Orange county 
system, the morning's mess may stand for cream say twenty-four hours, or 
until next morning ; and the night's milk twelve hours. The two messes of 
milk may then be skimmed, and the milk mingled together, placed in the vat 
for cheese-making. The manufacture of skim-cheese does not differ mate- 
rially from that of whole milk cheese. The milk in the vat being raised to a 
temperature of 82°, a sufficient quantity of rennet is added to perfect coagu- 
lation in about fifty minutes or an hour. Then the mass is cut with a steel- 
bladed curd-knife, the process of breaking effected as with whole milk cheese. 
The curd now having been allowed to subside, a gentle heat is begun to be 
applied, and the mass is very gradually raised to a temperature of 96°, the 
curds meanwhile being stirred, so as to keep from packing or clinging together. 
The curds are retained in the whey until properly matured, or as dairymen 
usually express it, " scalded," when the whey is drawn, the curds removed to 
the sink, and manipulated as with whole milk curds, and then salted at the 
rate of three pounds salt to one hundred of curd. Skimmed-cheese is usually 
made in small, flat shapes, somewhat similar to the single Gloucester of Eng- 
lish manufacture. They may be pressed in smaller hoops if desired, but very 
thick shapes should be avoided, as they do not cure so evenly and are more 
liable to get out of flavor. The most difficult part in manufacture is to know 
when the curds are properly matured or scalded. This is only to be learned 
by practice, or by handling the curds. 

In making skim-cheese it is important that a good, salable article be pro- 
duced. When milk is set in pans for butter making, about twenty pounds 



Fr ACTIO AL Dairy Husbandry. 



497 



of milk on an average will produce one pound of butter. In the skim-cheese 
and butter manufacture, about twenty-eight or thirty pounds of milk on 
an average are taken to make one pound of butter and two pounds of skim- 
cheese ; thus a basis is given in which to estimate the result of operations. 

In regard to the quantity of milk taken to make a pound of butter, I have 
named twenty pounds as an average, that quantity having been reported from 
the dairy practice of Hon. Zadock Pratt of Green Co., N. Y. In his 
report, going over several years, we find that during some seasons a much 
larger quantity of milk was required to make a pound of butter. As milk 
varies very much in character from a variety of causes, it mnst be evident 
that no exact standard can be given to apply in all cases. These figures must 
therefore, refer only to milk of average good quality. 

MILK FOR SKIM-CHBBSE MAKING 

must not be allowed to sour. It must be kept sweet, and this is easily done 
with the proper appliances. If the cream is churned sweet, and the butter- 
milk has not changed, it may be added to the skimmed milk, and thus 
employed for cheese-making. 

BUTTERMILK 

can hardly be regarded as of equal average value to the milk with which it is 
mixed for cheese-making. The value of buttermilk for cheese-making varies 
greatly from a variety of circumstances. Some specimens may be quite rich 
and others exceedingly poor. In a specimen of cream examined by Berze- 
Lius, the butter milk in one hundred parts was composed of cheesy matter, 
3.5 ; whey matter, 92.0. Cream varies very much in composition, according 
to the circumstances under which it is produced. Cream of average quality 
contains about twenty-five per cent, of butter. The analysis of two samples 
of cream gave the following : 



No. 2. 



Water, 

Butter (pure fatty matter), 

Caseine, 

Milk sugar, 

Mineraf matter, 




If it were possible to take all the butter from the cream by churning we 
should have in the buttermilk of the above samples a trifle over two and 
a-half pounds of cheesy matter out of a hundred pounds of cream. Or, if 
we take out the butter, letting the balance represent the butter milk, the first 
sample would give a little over two and a-half poiands of cheesy material 
from neai'ly eighty-nine pounds of buttermilk, and in the second sample 
about the same amount of cheesy matter from sixty-six and a-half j)ounds of 
32 



498 Practical Dairy Husbanbry. 

buttermilk. But in churning the cream a j)ortion of the butter remains in 
the buttermilk, so it would be no easy matter to say how much cheese one 
hundred pounds of buttermilk would yield. Milk, in the fall of the year, is 
quite rich in butter, and even when the night's milk is skimmed and added to 
the whole milk of the morning, the mixture will probably yield a pound of 
cheese from nine pounds of milk. 

CHTJENING THE CREAM OR THE MILK. 

It is claimed, as has been remarked, and with some reason, that churning 
the whole milk makes more butter than to set the milk and churn the cream. 
In setting the milk there is always a small portion of cream remaining in the 
milk after skimming ; and again, in churning whole milk there are more shells 
of caseine mixed with the butter. This cheesy matter increases the weight 
but diminishes the quality of the butter. The shells of caseine also give 
a whitish appearance to the buttei', injuring its color. I do not say but that 
very good butter may be made from churning whole milk, but it is more diffi- 
cult than to make from the cream ; and hence, for a choice article, of fine 
color, full of aroma and of long keeping qualities, I should advise setting 
the milk and churning the cream. A temperature of about 65°, or a little 
above, is said to be the best for churning whole milk if sweet, but the usual 
temperature employed is from 60° to 65°. 

THE DUTCH PROCESS. 

The process of making butter by churning the milk and cream together 
is practiced to some extent in Holland. In the Dutch process the milk is put 
into deep jars in a cool place, each meal or portion milked at one time being 
kept separate. As soon as there is the least appearance of acidity, the whole 
is placed in an upright churn to be churned. When the butter begins to form 
in small kernels the contents of the churn are emptied in a sieve that lets the 
butter milk pass through ; the butter is then formed into a mass. 

THE SCOTCH METHOD. 

In some of the dairy districts of Scotland the process is somewhat similar. 
The milk when it is drawn from the cow is placed from six to twelve hours in 
a cooler. When completely cooled the whole meal is emptied into a large 
wooden tub or vat. If the vat is sufficiently capacious and a second meal of 
milk has become cold, before the first exhibits any acidity, the two may be 
mixed together. A lid or cover is then put over the vat, which is allowed to 
stand undisturbed until the milk has soured and become loppered or coagu- 
lated. When it has arrived at this state it is fit to be churned. It is put in 
the churn and agitated a few minutes merely to break the coagulum of the 
milk. The mass is then brought to a temperature of 70° and churned. In 
some sections the milk is churned sweet, either a few hours after milking, or 
the night's and morning's mess of milk mingled together, and churned in the 
afternoon. It is more work to churn the milk than the cream. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 499 

turning the milk to most profit. 

When it is desired to turn milk to most account or profit, it should be 
set for cream, and this being removed while sweet, the skim-milk may be 
made into skim-cheese. Small skim-cheeses well made, meet with ready sale 
at a fair price. The whey resulting from the manufacture of the skim-cheese, 
when mixed with meal, is turned to good account as a feed for hogs, and in 
this way nothing is wasted. 

COLORING BUTTER. 

One of the market requisites in butter is that it be of a rich yellow or 
golden color. The fact that grass butter always has a rich shade without 
resorting to artificial coloring, is sufiicient reason on the part of consumers 
for suspecting that white butter must be of inferior quality. Late fall or 
spring butter made from the milk of cows fed upon hay, is generally deficient 
in color, and unless some artificial means be employed to give it the desired 
shade, it will not command a price in market equal to butter of the same 
texture and quality that has been colored. 

Pure annatto when properly prepared is very successfully used for impart- 
ing a good color to fall and winter butter. Annatto, of course, adds nothing 
to the flavor or quality of butter, but as the pure article when thus employed 
is quite harmless, there can be no serious objection to its use. In coloring 
butter with annatto it is important that a prime article be used, and to have 
it prepared so that it shall be free from sediment. Nicholl's English liquid 
annatto is a very good article for this purpose, but the annattoine, or dry 
extract of annatto, prepared as for cheese-making, after D. H. Burrell's 
receipt, which has been given on a previous page, is the best material for 
coloring butter artificially that I have seen. 

It gives a rich shade of color, is quite free from sediment, and from any 
deleterious adulteration. Doubtless the best way of coloring butter late in 
fall and spring, is to feed the cows upon early cut hay, nicely cured, with the 
addition of a daily mess of carrots, oat and corn meal, etc., as no artificial 
coloring will then be required, while the flavor and quality of the butter 
approximates more nearly to that made when the cows are at pasture. But 
as the kind of hay I have named may not be at hand, something, of course, 
must be done to take away that tallowy look which winter and spring butter 
is apt to have. 

coloring with carrots. 

I have seen a rich yellow color imparted to butter by coloring with 
carrots. The carrots should be thoroughly cleaned, then with a knife scrape 
off the yellow exterior only, and soak it in boiling milk for ten or fifteen 
minutes. It is then strained through a fine cloth, and the liquid added to the 
cream before churning. It not only gives a nice color, but some think it 
imparts a sweetness of flavor to the butter, somewhat resembling that 
obtained when the cows are feeding upon grass. When carrots are used for 



500 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



the purpose indicated, the outer or yellow portion of the root only is 
employed. I have heard it suggested that butter colored in this way (with 
carrots), is injured somewhat in its keeping qualities, but in my own expe- 
rience I have not found this to be the case. In the use of annatto it is under- 
stood, of course, that the coloring is to be added to the cream before churning. 
In the American Agricultural Annual for 1868, Prof. S. W. Johnson of 
Sheffield Scientific School, Yale College, has an interesting article wherein the 
philosophy of butter making is discussed. We make the following extracts. 
He says : 

"avekage composition op the products obtained from milk in 

making butter. 

" In making butter, one hundred parts of milk yield on the average, in round 
numbers, the following proportions of cream, butter, etc., provided the cream 
rises in a cool apartment, so that no sensible evaporation of water takes place : 

Butter milk, 6.0 

Butter, -. 4.0 ) Calculated 

Water removed from butter by saltiug, 0. 1 f without salt. 

Cream, 10.0 10 

Skimmed milk, 90 

100 
" The average percentage composition of these products is given in the subjoined table: 





New 
Milk. 


Skimmed 
Milk. 


Ceeam. 


BUTTEKMLLK. 


BUTTEE.t 


Brine, t 


Fat, 

Allumiuoids,* 

Milk sugar, 

Ash, 


4.00 
3.25 
4.50 
0.75 
87.50 


0.55- 
3.37 
4.66 
0.78 
90.64 


35.00 
2.20 
3.05 
0.50 

59.25 


1.67 
3.33 
4.61 

0.77 
89.62 


85.00 
0.51 
0.70 
0.12 

13.67 


0.00 
0.39 
3.84 
0.86 


Water, 


94.91 






Total, 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 







* Caseine and albumen. 

JUnsalted. 
Brine that separates on working after saltiug; salt not included. 

"when IS MILK OR CREAM READY FOR CHURNING? 

It is very difficult, if not impossible, to bring butter from fresh milk, or 
from thin cream that gathers upon milk kept cold for twenty-four hours. It 
has been supposed that milk should sour before butter can be made. This is 
an error ; numberless trials having shown that sweet milk and sweet cream 
yield butter, as much and as easily as sour cream, provided they have stood 
for some time at medium temperature. The fat of milk exists in minute 
globules which are inclosed in a. delicate membrane. It was natural to sup- 
pose that in fresh milk this membrane prevents the cohesion of the fatty 
matters, and that, when, by standing, the milk or cream becomes capable of 
yielding butter after a short churning, it is because the membrane has disap- 
peared or become extremely thin. Experiments show, in fact, that those sol- 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 501 

vents which readily take up fat, as ether for example, dissolve from sweet 
milk more iu proportion to the length of time it has stood at a medium 
temperature. 

" Readiness for churning depends chiefly upon the time that has elapsed 
since milking, and the temperature to which it has been exposed in the pans. 
The colder it is the longer it must be kept. At medium temperature, 60° to 
70* F., it becomes suitable for the churn in twenty-four hours, or before the 
cream has entirely risen. Access of air appears to hasten the process. The 
souring of the milk or cream has, directly, little to do with preparing them 
for the churn. Its influence is, howevei', otherwise felt, as it causes the 
caseine to pass beyond that gelatinous condition in which the latter is inclined 
to foam strongly at low temperatures, and by enveloping the fat globules 
hinders their uniting together. On churning cream that is very sour, the 
caseine separates in a fine, granular state, which does not interfere with the 
" gathering " of the butter. Even the tenacious, flocky mass that appears on 
gently heating the sweet whey from Cheshire cheese, may be churned without 
difficulty after becoming strongly sour. 

" Cream churned when slightly sour, as is the custom in the Holstein dairies, 
yields butter of a jDCCuliar and fine aroma. Butter made from sour cream is 
destitute of this aroma, and has the taste which the Holstein butter acquires 
after keeping some time. Stirring of cream does not promote souring, but 
rather hinders it by increasing access of air ; it may be advantageous in mak- 
ing the souring uniform. 

"the tempekatuee while churning. 
which is most favorable for gathering the butter with the proper softness and 
adhesiveness, is 66® to 70° F. The melting point of butter made on dry 
hay is slightly higher than that produced on grass, or while feeding with oil 
cake ; . correspondingly we find that, in winter, it is customary to churn a few 
degrees warmer than in summer. Sour cream may be cooled by direct addi- 
tion of Avater, but sweet cream is thereby prevented from yielding its butter. 
In the latter case, cold skim-milk may be used, or the cream should be cooled 
by water external to the churn. 

" the duration of churning. 
as is well recognised in practice, is of great influence on both the quality and 
quantity of the butter. Half an hour, at least, is considered essential by 
experienced dairymen for churning, when the volume of cream is considerable, 
and an hour or even more is not thought too much. The object of churning 
is to bring the fat globules of the cream or milk, which, by standing a suit- 
able time, have become divested of their envelopes, into contact so that they 
unite to a coherent mass. The gentler the motion to which the cream is sub- 
jected, the more slowly goes on the process of agglutination, and the closer 
and finer the union takes place. By slow churning the butter leaves the 
churn in a nearly finished condition, and requires a comparatively small 



I 



502 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

amount of working to complete its preparation. On the contrary, when 
butter is to come in a few minutes by violent agitation, as in the strife for the i 
repute of quick work in case of trials of new churns, there is obtained, ! 
instead of good butter in dense and large clumps, a doughy mass consisting I 
of little balls of fat mixed with buttermilk and cream, and full of air bubbles, 
which no skill in working can convert into good butter. While it is true 
that violent churning will produce a greater weight of so-called butter, it is 
demonstrated by chemical analysis that the milk or cream thus treated does 
not yield so much of its fat as is obtained by slower and gentler agitation. 
The greater weight of the product is due to the admixture of butter milk, 
which is retained in the spongy mass. The fact that churning must go on 
for some time before any visible change is effected in the cream, and that the 
blatter ' comes ' somewhat suddenly, is due to the exceeding minuteness of 
the fat globules, of which myriads must unite before they attain a size visible 
to the unaided eye. 

" WASHING BUTTEE. 

To prepare butter for keeping without danger of rancidity and loss of 
its agreeable flavor, great pains is needful to remove the buttermilk as com- 
pletely as possible. This is very imperfectly accomplished by simply work- 
ing or kneading. As the analysis before quoted shows, salting removes but 
little besides water and small quantities of sugar. Caseine, which appears 
to spoil the butter for keeping, is scarcely diminished by these means. 
"Washing with water is indispensable for its removal. In Holland and parts 
of Ilolstein it is the custom to mix the cream with a considerable amount of 
water in churning. The butter is thus washed as it ' comes.' In Holland it 
is usual to wash the butter copiously with water besides. The finished article 
is more remarkable for its keeping qualities than for fineness of flavor when 
new. The Holstein butter, which is made without washing, has at first a 
more delicious aroma, but appears not to keep so well as washed butter. 
Swedish butter, made by Gussandee's method, in which the cream rises 
completely in twenty-four hours, the milk being maintained at a temperature 
of 60® to 75" F., is, when jKepared without water, the sweetest of all. If, 
however, it is to be kept a length of time, it must be thoroughly washed 
before salting. 

" SALTING. 

" Immediately after chui-ning the mass consists of a mixture of butter 
with more or less cream. In case very rich cream (from milk kept warm) is 
employed, as much as one-thii'd of the mass may be cream. The process of 
working completes the union of the still unadhering fat globules, and has, 
besides, the object of removing the buttermilk as much as possible. The 
buttermilk, the presence of which is objectionable in new butter by impair- 
ing the taste, and which speedily occasions rancidity in butter that is kept, 
cannot be properly removed by working alone. Washing, as already 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 503 

described, aids materially in disposing of the buttermilk, but there is a 
limit to its use, since if applied too copiously, the fine flavor is impaired. 
After working and washing there remains in the butter a quantity of butter- 
milk or water which must be removed if the butter is to admit of preserva- 
tion for any considerable time. To accomplish this as far as possible, salting 
is employed. The best butter-makers, after kneading out the buttermilk as 
for as practicable, avoiding too much working so as not to injure the consis- 
tency or ' grain ' of the butter, mix with it about three per cent, of salt, 
which is worked in layers, and then leave the whole twelve to twenty-four 
hours. At the expiration of this time the butter is again worked, and still 
another interval of standing, with a subsequent working, is allowed in case 
the butter is intended for long keeping. Finally, when put down, additional 
salt (one-half per cent.) is mixed at the time of packing into the tubs or 
crocks. The action in salt is osmotic. It attracts water from the buttermilk 
that it comes in contact with, and also takes up the milk sugar. It effects 
thus a partial separation of the constituents of the buttermilk. At the same 
time it penetrates the latter and converts it into a strong brine which renders 
decomposition and rancidity difficult or impossible. Sugar has the same 
effect as salt, but is more costly and no better in any respect. Independently 
of its effect as a condiment, salt has two distinct offices to serve in butter- 
making, viz. : 1st, to remove buttermilk as far as possible from the pores of 
the butter; and 2d, to render innocuous what cannot be thus extracted." 

TAINTS IN" BUTTER-MAKING. 

Little things have much to do in dairy management. It is a little thing 
in butter-making that often spoils a large quantity of butter. Due attention 
may have been paid to pasturage, to cows, to milking, to setting the milk and 
churning the cream, and yet the butter turns out to be ill-flavored and inferior 
for the table. That clealiness and a pure atmosphere for milk and cream are 
essential to success in butter-making, seems to be one of the most difficult 
things for people to understand. I have seen butter spoiled by standing the 
cream in wooden vessels — vessels that had absorbed a taint from decomposed 
cream and which no ordinary cleansing would remove ; nor could dairymaids 
sometimes be made to believe that so apparently slight a cause would produce 
the difficulty until a change from wood to stone cream pots changed the whole 
character of their products. Some dairymen are in the habit of standing 
their. 

CKEAM POTS IN THE KITCHEN PANTRY 

to take the odors of boiled cabbage, fried onions and the steam of culinary 
operations on the kitchen stove, and it is from these things, these little things., 
that a taint goes to the cream-pots, and the good woman Avonders what is the 
matter with the butter. The butter-makers of Pennsylvania, who manufacture 
the celebrated Philadelphia butter, are exceedingly careful that no taints are 
allowed to come in contact with the cream or milk in the spring-house. You 



504 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



cannot enter their sacred precincts with a lighted cigar, your shoes must be 
cleansed of all impurities and you are expected to observe all the proprieties 
that you would on entering a costly-furnished parlor. It is by attention to 
the smallest details that they have been enabled to accomplish a grand result, 
and put upon the table a luxury. 

CAUSES AFFECTING THE CHURNING. 

The food on which a cow is fed has considei'able influence, not only on 
the quantity and quality of the butter she will yield, but on the time required 
in churning. Generally, when the extra food given is rich in nitrogen, there 
is less trouble in churning ; or, in other words, the butter comes quicker than 
when such food as potatoes, distiller's slops, etc., is made the sole extra food. 
If bran, oats and corn meal be given to the cow in connection with the pota- 




FlGUBB 11. FiGUBE 12. 

toes, the cream will be of better quality and will be more easily churned 
than that made from potatoes and hay alone. It may be remarked here that 
when neither grain nor meal is fed to cows in winter, in addition to hay, and 
the extra feed is composed of materials of which starch, sugar and water are 
the chief ingredients, the cream requires to be churned at a higher tempera- 
ture than that produced from food containing a good proportion of albumi- 
noids. There is another trouble in fall and winter that often retards the 
churning ; the milk and cream are not kept at an even temperature. If the 
milk is allowed to freeze and thaw, or to fall to a low temperature while being 
set for cream there is more difficulty in getting the butter speedily. The 
milk or cream should not be allowed to fall below 60°. 

When no conveniences are had for keeping the milk at the proper tem- 
perature while the cream is rising, in fall and winter, tolerably good results 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



505 



may be obtained by scalding the milk by placing it in a pan over hot water 
on the stove. As soon as a little " crinkle " is observed on the onter edges 
of the thin coat of cream which rises, remove the pan to a room of moderate 
temperature, or where the temperature does not fall below 50°, and the cream 
will not only rise rapidly, but can generally be churned with facility. The 
proper scalding of the milk will be easily learned by experiment. If scalded 
too much, the amount of cream will be diminished. I do not object to pota- 
toes being fed to cows in milk during fall and winter, but they should have 
in addition a mess of meal daily, with all the good hay they can eat. 

POWER FOR CHURlSriNG. 

A great many devices from time to time have been invented for lessening 
the labor of churning. Commencing with some of the more rude and simple 
modes of applying power, the preceding cut (Figure 11), is an illustration. 

It is simply a hickory sapling about 
twelve or fourteen feet long, fastened 
firmly at the butt end, while at the 
other end is fixed a seat in which a 
child can sit and perform the work 
with more ease than a grown person 
in the ordinary way. The dash of the 
churn may be fastened at any point to 
accommodate the spring of the pole. 

Then we have the simple arrange- 
ment of utilizing the water from small 
streams that may happen to be conve- 
nient to the premises. An illustration 
of such apparatus is shown in figure 12. 
Figure 12 is a watei'-power churn, showing the water-wheel fitting easily 
into the box or flume at the outlet of the dam ; or it may be simf)ly placed 
in a swift-running brook, as it does not require much power or speed. The 
wheel should be about three feet in diameter. The power can be transmitted 
any distance by means of two wires fastened upon j^oles with swing-trees that 
receive a backward and forward motion from the crank of the water-wheel. 
A correspondent of the Rural New Yorker sends to that paper the 
directions for making one of these appliances, which may prove suggestive 
and useful to farmers who have an opportunity of using water power for the 
purpose named. He says : — Take a stick of timber twenty inches in length 
and six in diameter (marked G,) (see Figure 13) secure it at the ends by iron 
bands (similar to hub-bands on a carriage-wheel) to prevent sj^litting while 
mortising the holes and driving the arms, to which pieces of board seven 
inches in width and twelve or fourteen inches long must be nailed. These 
are the paddles to the wheel, and there must be four of them. In one end of 
the shaft there must be an iron pin, in the other a crank F, similar to the 




Figure 13. 



606 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



crank of a grindstone. The crank must be just half as long as the play in the 
churn. Have the end of the crank square where it is driven into the end of the 
shaft, so as to prevent its moving in the shaft as the wheel goes round. After 
the end of the crank is driven into the shaft, attach the other end to a piece! 
of board two inches in width E, reaching up to cross piece C, which is made: 
long enough to reach to the place where the churn is to sit. The center of 
the cross piece is made to play upon an iron or hard wood pin in a groove in 
the top of a post D, which must be set firmly in the ground, or made firml 
some other way. At the other end of the cross piece is another stick or' 
light piece of board B, extending downward to the top of the churn dashers, 
and is secured by boring a hole in each end, tying them together with a good 
strong string, and all is ready for churning. I have one of these which my 
son fourteen years old made, after irons were ready, which does ray churning 
in twenty minutes, when the cream is the right tem2:)erature. 

When considerable quantities of cream are to be chui-ned and hand power 
is relied upon, the following sketch and description which a correspondent 
sends us may be useful. He says the machine was invented by a neighbor 




FlGDKB 14. ' 

who has used it twenty years and finds it a most convenient and labor-saving 
appliance, and any farmer who is handy with tools can make all the parts in 
a short time and it will run one or half a-dozen churns as easily as could be 
wished. He describes the machine as follows (See Figure 14). A horizontal 
shaft eighteen inches in circumference, is made to turn loosely in posts or in 
stationary uprights at either end. In the center of the shaft is fixed a bar 
that extends nearly to the floor, and at the lower end there is a handle of 
convenient length for moving the bar to and fro, thus setting the machine in 
motion. Cross bars are arranged in the shaft to which the churn dashers are 
attached. When four churns are to be used at once, the posts should be 
seven feet apart, and the cross bars to which the dashers are attached should 
pass through the shaft half-way from either post to the perpendicular bar 
which operates the machine. The churn-dasher handles must be made ten or 



Fraciical Dairy Husbandry 



507 



twelve inches longer than the ordinary handles, and with holes through the 
top to receive a pin by which they are secured to the cross-bars, making a 
movable joint. The cut (Figure 15) shows a mechanical contrivance to 
lessen the labor of hand churning. The system of gearing and balance 
wheel not only lessens the labor but produces a steadiness of motion or regu- 
larity of stroke of the dash which is always desirable in churning. Figure 
16 is the old-fashioned dog-churn, and probably as good in all respects as any. 
The tread wheel should be carpeted, in order to give the dog a firm hold with 
his toe-nails. Any carpenter can make it with no other directions than the 
engraving affords. The plain plank treadwheel should be inclined as in the 
engraving. 

DOG AND SHEEP POWEK. 

The Cortland Co. butter-makers use a machine constructed on the prin- 
ciple as shown at figure 16, except that there is an improved gearing for 





Figure Ift FigttrE 16. 

running the churn. In Orange Co. horse-powers for churning are constructed 
essentially on the same plan. Figure 17 is a vertical wheel with a rim about 
two feet in width, on the inside of which the animal treads. It is necessary 
to have this wheel as much as eight or ten feet in diameter. The engraving 
gives ample insight into its mechanical construction. The Emeey machine, 
a dog-power, constructed on the railway principle, is very much liked by 
many, and is a cheap and efficient power. The illustration (Figure 18) shows 
the form and manner of application. 

Among the sweep powers for churning we know of nothing better than 
the Richardson power — one of the cheapest sweep powers made, and useful 
for many other kinds of work on the farm besides churning. The cut (Fig: 
19) shows its general form. 



608 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



OVER-WORKING BUTTER AND SPOILING THE GRAIN. 

A great deal of good butter is spoiled in the working. There are vast 
quantities of butter to be found in the markets, of good color, properly 
salted, the buttermilk expelled, and yet it has a mussy look and lardy taste. ■ 
Consumers are often at a loss to account for it. The butter is not rancid nor i 
has it any disagreeable odor, but it is poor, nevertheless. This butter may 
have been made from the nicest cream, with the utmost attention to cleanli- 
ness in every branch of its manufacture, from the drawing of the milk to its 
packing in the firkin. The maker perhaps has expended all her knowledge 
and every resource within reach to get a prime article, hoping for a name in 
the market, and an advanced price for a really " tip-top " article. And when 
the expert affirms that the butter is inferior and must be classed as second or 





Figure 17. Figubk 18. 

third rate, it is very disheartening, and some give up in despair of ever learn- 
ing the " knack " of manufacturing a strictly nice grade of goods. They 
cannot imagine why butter upon which so much care and attention has been 
bestowed should be condemned as having a greasy look and taste. If inquiry 
be made concei'ning the fault in manufacture, the dealer, if he be an expert, 
will be very likely to say, " My dear sir, or madam, your butter has no 
grain ;" but, as it is somewhat difficult to define Avhat is meant by 

THE " GRAIN " OF BUTTER, 

and as the manufacturer does not understand where the trouble lies, no 
improvement is made. What is meant by the term grain as applied to butter, 
is a waxy appearance, and the more it resembles wax in its apjjearance the 
better the grain. When properly churned, both as to time and temperature, 
the butter becomes firm with very little working, and is tenacious. It then 
may be easily molded into any shape, and may be drawn out a considerable 
length before breaking. It has a smooth and unctuous feeling on rubbing a 
little between the finger and thumb. When the grain is injured the butter 
spreads like grease, and the more it resembles grease the more is the grain 
injured. Good butter that has not been injured in the grain will not stick to 
the knife that cuts it. Butter that has no grain is brittle, and when broken 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



509 



presents a jagged surface and will not spread with that smooth, waxy appear 

ance belonging to good butter. It is only when butter has this waxy coq 

sistency that it preserves that rich, nutty flavor 

and smell which impart so high a degree of 

pleasure in eating it. So it will be seen there 

is very good reason for consumers rejecting 

butter that has been overworked into grease, 

even though it may have all the essentials of the 

best quality when taken from the churn. 

IlSr WORKING BUTTEK. 

the hands should not come in direct contact with 
the butter. Gather it together with a wooden 
butter ladle in the tray or butter bowl, turn off 
the buttermilk and wash with fresh spring water. 
Gash it around the whole circumference, making 
channels lowest at either end, so that the butter- 
milk can readily run off. Do not grind it down 
against the tray, after the manner of tempering 
mortar, for in this way you will be likely to 
injure the grain. It is not well to attempt to 
work out all the buttermilk at once. 

But very little manipulation is required in 
washing out the buttermilk; then salt with 
pure, fine salt and set aside in a cool place for 
twelve hours, during which time the action of 
the salt will liberate more of the buttermilk. 
Then work a second time, either with the ladle 
or butter-worker, using precautions not to over- 
work or grind the butter by rubbing it down 
against the tray, and then the work is done and 
the butter is ready for packing. 

BUTTER-WOEKEE. 

Quite a number of butter-workers have been 
introduced from time to time, some of them 
useful and others liable to injure the grain of 
the butter from their peculiar construction. On 
a previous page I have given a cut of the butter- 
worker used largely in Orange Co. Among the 
butter-workers of Cortland Co., N". Y., I found 
an instrument very much like those illustrated 
in figures 20 and 21, largely in use. They 
appeared to be inferior to the Orange Co. machine. The subjoined cuts will 



510 



Practical Dairy Husbandrt, 



illustrate some of the butter-workers that have been in use from time to time 
(see Figures 22, 23 and 24). Figures 22 and 23 consist of a table and fluted 
roller. The roller is made of hard wood, and being pressed over the butter 
expels the buttermilk. It may also be made to incorporate salt with the butter. 
A table is in some cases made with a marble top ; but it has been urged against 
such that the acid of the buttermilk decomposes the stone, and the lime 
becoming mixed with the butter, injures it. Hence wood, maple or oak, is 
preferred. 

The Eureka or Corbin butter-worker, is a recent invention, and from its 
simplicity and ease of operation is a valuable addition to this class of imple- 
ments. A common butter-bowl is placed and held securely on a small, light 
stool, firmly against a solid rest R (see Figure 25) that protects it from break- 
ing or springing. It may be revolved either way at will, also easily tipped 




FlGUEE 20. 



FiGUBE 21. 



by a lever to drain olF the fluids, and as readily removed from the stool as 
from a table, and bowls of difierent sizes may be used on the same stool. 
The ladle, H, is attached to a pendant lever, F, G, that enables a person to 
press directly through hard butter in all parts of the bowl without drawing 
or sliding it ; also to cut, turn and work it in every manner desired. It is 
light, strong and simple, everything about it is practical, with nothing to get 
out of place or order, and it is as handily moved, washed and dried as any 
butter bowl and ladle. The lever, E, is fastened to the slot, J, while the 
butter is being worked, and is raised up to discharge the buttermilk from the 
bowl as occasion requires. There is a circular iron rim fastened to the bottom 
of the bowl which slides in an iron groove attached to the lever K, and which 
allows the bowl to be moved round and when desired to be removed entirely 
from the other parts of the worker. I have tested this machine for working 
butter and am pleased with its operation. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



511 



SALT. 



A great many people do not understand the importance of keeping salt in 
a dry, pure atmosphere. Of course a pure article of salt should be obtained 
in the first jalace ; then keep it wliere it will not absorb foul gases and bad 
odors. Salt that is allowed to get damp and is exposed in this condition to 
the effluvia of rotten vegetables, the odors from carrion, the sink or cess-pools 
is not fit to put into butter. Butter is often spoiled in flavor by inattention 
to the manner in which salt is kept — allowing crumbs and other refuse matter 
from the pantry to fall into the salt dish — taking out salt with dirty hands, 
etc., thus leaving impurities to be gathered up and added to the butter. 



HAIKS. 



It may also be added that human hair is no improvement, either in the 
flavor or quality of butter. I have seen choice samples of butter rejected on 
account of a single hair having been discovered in it. So strong was the 
impression that the butter was made by a dirty, shiftless person, that no 
argument could prevail upon the customer to take it. 





FiGtJBB 22. 



PlGtTRE 23. 



PACKING BUTTER AND BUTTER PACKAGES. 

A great many people make good butter and spoil it in the packing. Prob- 
ably there is no article of food in which fine quality is more eagerly sought 
after than butter, and none for which a large price is more cheerfully paid. 
It is true a good deal of butter is spoiled in the making, but it seems such a 
wanton waste to deliberately convert a good material into grease for want 
of a little foresight in packing, that we cannot refrain from bringing the ques- 
tion fairly before the butter-makers of the country. Dairymen should under- 
stand that 

BUTTER WILL NOT KEEP IN EVERY KIND OP A TUB OR FIRKIN, 

and he who packs butter in shabbily-made, badly-hooped tubs, does it as a 
cheat and a Avrong to somebody. It is impossible to keep butter any length 
of time in a leaky tub, exposed as it must be more or less to foul air and 
odors, before it reaches the consumer. Those who make " gilt-edged " butter 



512 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



pay the greatest attention to packing, and a good share of its superior quality 
(a quality which frequently sells at from seventy-five cents to a dollar per 
pound) is due to extra packages and the extra care taken in all the details 
while packing. • No " gilt-edged " butter is filled in firkins or pails standing 
in the house-cellar, surrounded by decaying vegetables, in the vicinity o»j 
soap tubs, stale beef brine, and accumulations of soap grease. Some peopl^ 
pack and store butter in these places, and then complain because they cannot 
get the market price on the day of sale. 

A few years since a dairyman of my acquaintance, who had been partic- 
ulai'ly unfortunate in his sales, sent for a noted butter-maker to learn the 
secret of making a high-priced article. The man came and looked over the 
premises, and the only advice given was, " You need a clean, sweet, Avell- 
ventilated cellar for storing butter, and it must be used for nothing else ; 




FiGTIEB 24. 



FiGtJBE 25. 



THEN GET OAK FIEKINS, HEAVILY HOOPED, AIR-TIGHT, 

and made just as handsome as the best cooper can turn them out. You need 
not change in your process of manufacture. This is all you have to do, and 
I will warrant your success." These suggestions were at once adopted and 
quick sales, large prices and heavy profits were the result. That dairy has 
now an enviable reputation, and the butter is eagerly sought after. A dirty- 
looking package will often lose a good sale. It should have a fresh, clean, 
sweet appearance when it reaches the consumer, that will please the eye of 
the most fastidious. 

THE KIND OP WOOD POR PACKAGES. 

There are only a few kinds of wood that are fit to pack butter in. Wood 
of the ash is extensively used in some sections. It contains an acid very 
objectionable for butter, and should be rejected. Spruce, pine and other gummy 
woods are often used, but they impart a disagreeable flavor to the butter. 



Practical Dairy Husbandry. 



513 



White oak makes an excellent package, but the Avood should be thoroughly- 
seasoned before using. If the package is to be filled at once f.r.d immediately 
sold, a price may perhaps be obtained for it as a good article, but imless it 
goes into immediate consumption some one finds himself cheated with rancid 
grease. Just where the cheat comes in, and who are the guilty parties, the 
thousands of persons who are being cheated never know. I have given on 
previous pages cuts representing the Orange Co. packages and the Philadel- 
phia butter package. One of the best return packages is the Wescott return 
butter pail represented in figure 26. It is made of the best kiln-dried white 
oak, matched and turned perfectly smooth inside and outside, oiled and 
varnished, with extra heavy iron hoops, nicely fitted and perfectly secured 
cover by means of galvanized ears of malleable iron, with bar, spring key and 
galvanized hasp. It is a neat, substantial, secure and durable article. The 
twenty-five pound Avhite oak pail furnished by the Oak Pail Manufacturing 
Company is also a desirable article. It is designed for packing choice butter 
for family use, and not being liable to breakage, and being made of the best 





FiGUBB 26. 



FiGUBE 27. 



materials and in the best manner, it is to be recommended. Recently small 
packages made after the Wescott return pail, each package holding about 
five pounds of butter, have been introduced. Twelve of these packages are 
placed in a box in double tiers and are thus sent to market. 

The Elmere package is a Vermont invention, and consists in what may be 
termed a follower nearly as large as the inside of the tub, with a projection 
at tAVO opposite points that slide doAvn in grooves about an incli, and then 
become fast by sliding into another groove running in an opposite direction. 
The object of the foUoAver is for salt to be placed upon it in such quantity 
as to produce a brine that Avill keep the air entirely excluded from the butter, 
preserving it from rancidity. The article is represented in figure 27. 

PREPARING FIRKINS FOR USE. 

In preparing firkins and tubs for use, boiling water should be poured into 
them and left to soak for twenty-four hours. Then fill Avith strong brine for 
tAvo or three days, turn out and rinse with pure, cold Avater, and rub the 
33 



514 Practical Dairy Husbandry. 

sides with, pure fine salt. Tubs, after being fitted should be headed and 
brine poured in at a hole in the top so as to fill all intervening spaces. Fir- 
kins when filled may be covered with a thin piece of muslin, upon which is 
spread a layer of fine salt, and then closed With a wooden cover. Store in a 
clean, sweet, well-ventilated butter cellar until ready for market. Good 
butter in good tubs, properly packed and stored, need not wait long for a 
customer at top prices. 

WHEY BUTTER. 

At the fai-m dairies and among the early factories the butter taken from 
the whey was not considered of much account beyond furnishing a kind of 
grease for oiling the cheese. The whey was run into vats or tubs, and after 
standing from twelve to twenty hours, or longer, the cream was taken off and 
a sufficient quantity being obtained, it was placed in a kettle over the fire 
and " tried out " something in the manner of preparing lard. At the farm 
dairies it was often churned and the butter purified by heating over a fire and 
pouring the oil from the sediment. The opinion did not at that time gener- 
rally prevail that any thing more than a respectable kind of grease could be 
obtained from whey cream. A few years ago, however, processes were 
adopted for obtaining whey butter and preparing it for table use. In this 
some factories have met Avith great success, being able to produce a quality 
of butter that, when freshly made and nicely put up, will sell in the market 
at the same price as the ordinary samples of butter made at farm dairies. 
Whey butter, however, both in texture and flavor, is inferior to fancy butter 
made from cream, and though when freshly made it may be made to pass for 
cream butter for table use, still it does not possess long-keeping qualities and 
should go into immediate consumption as soon as made. The following is a 
description of the processes by which whey butter is manufactured for the 
table. Under that entitled the hot process five hundred gallons of whey on 
an average is said to yield twenty pounds of marktetable butter. 

THE HOT PEOCESS. 

In this process the whey is drawn sweet directly from the curds to a vat 
having a copper bottom, and setting over an arch similar to those used for 
boiling sap in sugar making. The butter works are separated from the 
cheese manufacturing department, the arch and vat being arranged lower 
than the cheese vat, so that the whey may be readily drawn, simply by 
having a conducting pipe from one vat to the other. After drawing the whey 
one gallon of acid is added for every fifty gallons of milk, if the whey is 
sweet. If the whey is changed a less quantity of the acid will be sufficient, 
and if the acid is not sharp one pound of fine, pure salt should be incorpo- 
rated with it. The acid having been added in the above proportions heat is 
immediately applied to the mass until it indicates a temperature of from 
175® to 185" F. As the cream rises to the surface it is skimmed off and set 



Frautical Dairy Husbandry. 515 

in a cool place until next day. It is then churned at a temperature of from 
66° to 68°, according to the temperature of the atmosphere, and then worked 
and salted according to the usual method of butter-making. The acid 
is made by taking any quantity of whey after extracting the cream, heating 
it to a boiling point, and adding a gallon of sharp, sour whey to every ten 
gallons of boiling whey, when all the caseine and albuminous matter remain- 
ing in the whey will collect in a mass. This is skimmed off and the whey 
left to stand for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, when it will be ready for use. 

THE COLD PROCESS. 

The other process, called the Eggak, or cold process, is said to make very 
good butter, but I am not so familiar with its operations or the quality of 
the butter j^roduced as in the process I have first described. In the cold pro- 
cess the whey is drawn into a zinc vat, or one having a metal bottom. This 
vat is fifteen inches high, three feet wide and of convenient length. It sets 
in a wooden vat with space between the two for cold water. The whey is 
then drawn into the upper vat, and a handfull of salt added to every ten gal- 
lons of whey. During the first two hours it is stirred thoroughly from the 
bottom every fifteen minutes. Afterward it is left to stand quiet for about 
twenty-four hours, when it is skimmed. The cream is then churned at a 
temjDcratvire of about 58®. If the temperature of the cream is above 60° 
cool it; if below 56° warm it. It is churned until the butter becomes granu- 
lated about the size of buckwheat kernels, when it is left to stand about five 
minutes, then let the buttermilk run ofi", and throw on cold water. Let it 
stand until it is hard before stirring much, then rinse with cold M^ater until 
the water runs ofi" clear, then churn it together or gather it and press the 
water out, and salt it at the rate of one pound of salt to fourteen pounds 
butter. Let it stand till next day and work and pack as with other butter. 



A.PI>EISri3IX, 



DAIRY BARN. 

Since writing the description of Dairy Barns, in the fore part of this volume, a 
correspondent of the Rural New-Yorker sends to that paper the following plans of a 
convenient dairy barn, which we think offer good suggestions to those who propose to 
erect this kind of building on dairy farms. He says : — This barn was designed and is 
now owned by D. "W. Clark, Esq., of Schuyler's Lake, N. Y., who is one of the leading 
dairymen of Otsego County. The principal advantages attained in its construction are a 
dry, light and well ventilated stable for cows, convenience in feeding and caring for tlie 
same, ample storage for all the forage needed during the winter, besides room for all the 
grain raised on a lai-ge dairy farm ; also depositories for manure, so arranged that it is 
protected from the washings of heavy rains without incurring the risk of injuring tlie 
health of stock or rotting the limbei-s which support the stable floor, as is the case where 
the manure cellars are directly under the stable. 

By referring to the engravings, the reader will understand how these advantages 
are secured. The basement walls are built on a foundation of stone, hammered into 
the soil, and are twenty inches thick, of quarry stone, laid in lime mortar, and are 
eight feet high ; the sills are bedded in mortar, and are of yellow pine. The cross 
sills are supported by two cast-iron columns (set on a thick stone, four feet square) under 
each bent. Tiie piers under main sills are two by four feet, of quarry stone. There are 
six bents in the frame, the posts of which are braced and pinned at both top and bottom. 
The feed holes or traps are directly beneath the cupolas, which, together with the 
windows in rear of stables, are hung on hinges, and may be swung up to secure perfect 
ventilation. That portion of the basement devoted to stabling is thirty by seventy feet. 
Total area of building, fifty-two by seventy ; has capacity for stabling forty-two cows, 
together with feed, horse-power machinery for cutting feed, &c. The root cellar is near 
the barn, where there is a stream of water convenient for washing roots and watering 
stock. The siding is of inch pine, planed and matched, and thoroughly painted. Total 
cost, $3,000. 

SUMMER TEMPERATURE OF THE DAIRY REGION. 

Mr. Anson Bartlett of Ohio, in an address before the American Dairymen's Asso- 
ciation, gives the following ; 

It is well understood by practical cheese-makers that, in a temperature of 65° or 
below, there is very little diflBculty in preserving milk, providing ordinary care is used to 
keep all utensils used for or about it clean and sweet, and that while such a temperature 
is maintained the merest tyro can produce a fair article of cheese,, but that when the 
temperature of the atmosphere rises above that point, ascending as it does in some parls 



Practical Dairy Evsbanvry. 




Pbactical Dairy Husbandry. 



519 




End View oi" Feasee-wobk.— The ends or outside bents have walls clear across under sills, instead of iron 
columns. I, I, Iron columns. Hight of basement, 8 feet ; hight of post from basement to rafters, 
16 feet ; roof, one-half pitch. 




Basement.— A, alley. 8x70 feet ; B, stall floor, A^x 70 feet ; C, ditch or drop, 14 inches wide ; D, space or 
walk ; B, stanchions ; F, manure cellar ; G, piers, 2x4 feet ; H, columns under cross sills ; W, win- 
dows ; I, doora. 



520 



Afjpendix. 



TABLE SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DAIRY REGION. 



Stations. 



Orleans County.Crafts- 
bury, Vt 

Chittenden Co., Bur- 
lington, Vt 

Kutlund County, Bran- 
don, Vt 

Hampden Co., Spring 
field, Mass 

Berkshire County,Wil 
liams College, Mass 



Albany, ~1 

Orange Co., New- 
burgh, 

Oneida Co., South 
Trenton, 

Oneida Co., Clin- 
ton, 

Jefferson Co., The- 
resa, 

Madison Co , Onei- 
da, 

Oneida Co., Utrca, 
Oswego Co., Os- 
wego 

Monroe Co., Roch- 
ester, 

Erie Co., BufTalo,. 

Chatauqua County 
Jamestown J 

Ashtabula County, 
Austinburg,. ... 

Columbiana Co. , 
E. Fairfield 

Geauga Co., Welsh- 
field 

Cuyahoga County, 
Cleveland, 

Huron Co., Nor- \ 
walk, 

Wayne Co., Woos- 
ter, 

Erie Co , Kelley's 
Island, 

Lake County Mad- 
ison, J 

D3KalbCo,Sand-l 
wich 

La Salle Co., Otta- 
wa, 

Winnebago Co . 
Winnebago,.. . . '. 

MoHenry Co., Ma- 
rengo, 



Kane Co., Aurora,, 
Monroe County, Mon- 
roe. Mich 

Ingham Co. A2;ricultu- 
ral College, Mich.... 

Cincinnati, Ohio, 



Louisville, Ky 

Montgomery County, 
Clai-ksville, Tenn... 



90 
87 
AG 
103 
96 
96 
99 
91 
9G 
93 
98 

90 
95 
97 
97 
93 
9.3 
94 
95 
91 
98 
93 
95 
96 
104 



96 



99 



102 



CD 

P 

> 

3 

3 3 
o 

I 









g 


og 


g 


a 






p 


&s 




>^ 


3 


^H 


~ >^ 


-> 


sl 


= 3 


„. 3 


— -c 


P 


cii 


g. 




g^ 


S W 


p s 


6 ~_ 


3 


Y' 6 


3 " 




c 


t] 




.-• 2' 



Mean Temperature 

each of four 

months. 



3 W 
o c. 



09 



—28 
—29 
—22 
—21 
-18 
—18 
-15 
22 

—20 
—27 
—26 

—15 
—10 

— 9 
—17 
—14 

— 8 
—12 
—11 
-13 
-10 
—13 
-10 
—26 
—25 
—28 
-17 
—20 

— 4 
—22 
—12 
-10 





40.3 
48. 

45.8 

46.5 

44.5 

50.5 

50.3 

44. 

48. 

44.5 

46.2 

45.75 

47.3 

48. 

46. 

47.75 

43.2 

48.8 

49.5 

48.5 

48.8 

49. 

49.2 

4'5.2 

47.5 

44. 

45.5 

46.5 

48.75 

45.8 

55. 

54.5 

56.75 



59.1 

62 5 

65.5 

65.5 

62. 

70. 

70.2 

65. 

68. 

64. 

65.5 

06.5 

64. 

46.2 

66.5 

67. 

66. 

66. 

68.5 

eas 

67.5 

71. 

69.8 

72. 

67.75 

68.75 

68. 

66.2 

67.5 

67.2 

66. 

74. 

75. 

73. 



£0.7 

24.5 

25. 

24.5 

25.5 

31.2 

.31. 

25. 

24. 

23.5 

25. 

27. 

27.5 

28. 

25.75 

28.75 

25.5 

30. 

.30. 

25.5 

27.7 

29.8 

30 5 

23. 

25.75 

26. 

22.2 

23.5 

28.5 

25.2 

37. 

34.5 

40.5 



45.5 

47.5 

52. 

50.2 

49. 

57.5 

54.5 

44.5 

50.5 

48.2 

50.5 

44. 

51. 

48. 

49. 

52. 

54. 

52.5 

52. 

53.5 

54.5 

52. 

52.5 

52.5 

51.5 

52. 

51. 

53. 

56.5 

50. 

58. 

58.2 

54.6 



38.1 

40. 

43. 

44.5 

43.5 

46.5 

49.5 

43.4 

44.5 

42.5 

46. 

45 5 

45. 

45.5 

41.5 

44. 

46.5 

43. 

46.5 

46.5 

44.5 

48.5 

43. 

41. 

42.5 

41. 

44.5 

44. 

42.5 

42.5 

49. 

49. 

51.5 



44.09 


CO. 


40.73 


62. 


40.42 


65. 


36.25 


65.5 


35.56 


64.5 


38.81 


68.5 



38.82 69. 



55.25 
43.67 
40.71 
62.55 

44.00 

;k.88 

44.11 
50.34 
43.39 
59.44 
51.88 
40.34 
39.81 

31.07 
46.54 
35.75 
38.91 
35.17 
43.92 
31.86 
39.52 
28.12 
41.31 
52.31 
48.49 



64.5 



64. 

64. 

62.2 

66.5 

66. 

66.5 

63.5 

67. 

69. 

70.5 

67. 

70. 

68.5 



66.5 

67. 

67.5 

66.5 

73. 

72.2 

72.5 



66. 
68. 

72. 
73. 
69. 

72.1 

77. 

72.5 

69. 

71. 

70.5 

68.5 

69.6 

73. 

73.5 

72. 

71.5 

73. 

73.2 

74. 

73. 

76. 

75. 

71.7 

75. 

74.75 

74. 

75. 

76. 

73.2 

73.5 

78.3 

78.5 

77.5 



61.3 
66. 

68.2 

63.2 

62. 

70. 

67. 

59.2 

67. 

68. 

65. 

66.7 

66.5 

67.5 

68. 

70. 

71. 

64. 

71. 

67. 

70. 

73.5 

72. 

68.4 

68. 

69.5 

68.5 

65. 

68. 

68.5 

66.5 

74.3 

73. 

73.5 



52.6 

54.2 

57.6 

GO. 5 

58. 

61.4 

68. 

64. 

61. 

55. 

62. 

58.4 

58. 

58. 

60.5 

59. 

58. 

60. 

61. 

62. 

60. 

63. 

63.5 

64.6 

59.5 

62. 

60. 

59. 

57. 

59.2 

57. 

67.3 

66.5 

68.5 



15.66 
15.77 
17.72 
11.42 
16.73 
20.04 
17.20 
24.77 
17.15 
9.00 
32.29 



13.02 
12.57 
15.42 
18.30 
13.77 
28.64 
18.01 
18.96 
18 88 

13.69 
1.5.53 
17.40 
13.38 
17.77 
24.94 
16.55 
18.81 
10.71 
15.82 
23.17 
15.49 



1863-66 

1863-64 

186.3-66 

1864-66 

1866 

1866 

1866 

1866 

1858-63 

1863-64 

1863-66 



1863-66 

1863-66 

1858-66 

1864 

1863-64 

1866 

1858-64 

1857-66 

1866 

1864 

1863-66 

1857-58 

1864-66 

1857-66 

1858-66 

1866 

1866 

1863-66 

1864-66 

1857-66 

1864-66 

1864-66 



Appendix. 



521 



of our country to 98° or 100°, tlie real troubles and tlifficnlties of a cheese-maker begin to 
be experienced ; and tainted milk, that worst of all forms of milk, is met with, I believe, 
only when the thermometer nuiiks a mean temperature for the day of over 70\ 

The preceding table, prepared with care, and compiled with a great deal of labor, 
shows the highest temperature, the lowest degree, mean annual temperature, mean 
temperature of summer, mean temperature of winter (counting four months, June^July, 
August and September, as summer, and four months, December, January, February and 
Marcii, as winter), the mean temperature of two spring mouths, the mean of two fall 
months, tlie mean«annual rain fall, the mean temperature of each of the four months, 
June, July, August and September, and the mean rain of all these four warmest months, 
at some thirty-four different stations, beginning in tlie Northeast part of Vermont and 
Western Massachusetts, extending through New York, Nortiierii Ohio, Southern Mich- 
igan and in the Northern part of Illinois, one station in Cincinnati, in Southern Ohio, 
Louisville, Ky., and Clarksville, Tennessee. 

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF MILK IN GALLOSiS, CARRIED ON THE ERIE RAILWAY, FOR 

THE YEARS 1861, 1863, 1863, 1864 and 1865. 



January.... 
Febriiai-y.. 

March 

A pril 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . 

October 

November . 
December. 



Total 5,967,770 



1862, do 

186S, do 

1861, do 

1865. do 



1862. 



389,085 
372,297 
448,525 
501,000 
613.992 
641,877 
689,915 
652,975 
556.050 
509,107 
407,192 
394,920 



6,180.537 



1863. 



398,295 
384,917 
409,755 
550,722 
715,500 
780,853 
782,845 
796,092 
671,995 
604,673 
492,992 
423,805 



7,078,455 



1864. 



393,995 

413,277 
521,430 
582,657 
755,087 
815,975 
808,065 
780,577 
640,587 
611.343 
516,920 
456,825 



7,296,740 



1865. 



432,337 
410,687 
540,902 
630,865 
809,195 
935,972 
941,667 
871,332 
733,760 
640,753 
528,470 
490,256 



7,956.189 



EECAPITULATIGN'. 

1861, total gallons e.aRtmn 

1Rfi2 An ' O,9b7,770 

^**"'- "^"^ 6,180,537 

7,078,455 

7,296,740 

7,956,189 



DAIRY PRODUCT OP THE STATE OF OHIO AND THAT OP HERKIMER COUNTY, N. Y. 

The statement is made on the authority of the Ohio Farmer that for the past ten years 
there lias been a gradual decline in the dairy products of that State. The statistics given 
show that in 1860 there was a larger amount of cheese and butter made in the State thau 
in 1868. These statistics are as follows : 



OHIO DAIRY PRODUCT. 





Pounds Butter. 


Po'nds Cheese. 




Pounds Butter. 


Po'nds Cheese. 


1860 


38.440,498 
35,442,858 
34,065,629 
31.121,275 
31,141,876 


24,816.424 
20,637,253 
20,752,097 
19,1.30,750 
18,097,095 


1865 


32,4,50,139 
36,344,608 
34,8.33,445 
37,005,378 




1861 


1866 




1862 

1863 


1867;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;; 


19,985;486 


1864 




17,814,599 



HERKIMER COUNTY, N. Y., DAIRY PRODUCT. 



1864 

1865 

1866.... 



Pounds Butter Po'nds Cheese 



492,673 
313,7.55 
232,961 



16,767,999 
16,808.,S,52 
18,172,913 



1867. 
ISfiS. 

18:9. 



Pounds Butter. Po'nds Cheese 



204,.3g5 
241,682 
204,634 



16,772.031 
15,7.34.920 
15,570,487 



522 



Appendix. 



Price got for making .... 


« " a ^ 

th O 1-1 1-1 







« 

Ot-I 

T— 1 


- « ie' . ej c5 
" • 00 

•^\« : \^^ 

. COt-N . CO©? 

T-l . 
TH CJ O'i 


Pounds of milk to one of 


9.74 
9.8 

9.8575 

'9.3 " 

9.67 

9.975 

9.885 
9.78 




Pounds of milk to one of 


i> 



t- 



; OS : ; ; ; ; ; 


: ; : r ; ; 




Percent, of shrinkage.. 


i 00 • • • '• '. '. 




Average weight dry 


CO tH CO • ■* »o •' • 

10 100 • »o 00 • • 


• • • CO CO 

• • • CO CO 

. • • T— 1 


Size of cheese 


15&18 

15 & 9 

16 inches 

15«fcl0 

20 

15 & 22 
20&15 

18 

15 

15 

22 

15 
15 




Average price per pound 


^\ a '. : loosooio^oco 
CO .^.. OS , cojoiocoj>co coos 
CO cd»d' -^ . loioco'ioioco £>ic 

r-' TH r-l . T-l . T-l T-l 1-1 T-l tH T-l T-l T-l 


Pounds of cured cheese. 


OS 0-*0 , (M CO CO IC CO CO CO T-l OS 
00 Oi-lt- t» CO <??COT-llC-^t- iOO 
'^^ ^,''^<^„ ®>, *2 CO__CO_lO^O\00_^C5 OS OS 

<M »o o'co" ci" T-T ic't-'oo'os'T-ro' co't-" 

(?1 IOCSt-I tH ':}< 0«COC300CO 0000 
tH C3t-i^ t-( (MCOOiCiCO t-HtH 


Pounds of green cheese. 


00 . . 

^ . . . . . . 

^ . . , . '. '. 

1> 

t- 

w 




Gallons of milk 


186,135 
109,574 

212,083 
313,739 
206,324 

273,801 




Pounds of milk 


1,192,740 
2,519,228 

1,408,892 

2,V2'5,i45 
2,023,373 
3,011,817 

1,847,830 
1,837,750 




Average number of cows 


00 T-l 10 • JO -OO -o • coo 
2 £;?>; ■ <^ 2 •S'^ -^ • '^^ 

^ COlO- ^ -OOIO-OO- £-CO 


Whole number of cows. . 


S £: "^ ^ '^ cocoGo -oo 00 
2 S":S <^ S- csoo-oo CO1-1 
■* 00 -co ■Tti io OS CO • OS T-l 00 J> 


o 

1 

Hi 


Summit County.. 
Fowler's Mills, 

Geauga Co. . .. 
Bainbridge, do. . 
Thomson, do.. 
Huntington, Lo- 

raine Co 

Mecca, Trumbull 

Co 

CI arid on, Geauga 

Co 

Auburn, do.. 
Troy, do. . 
Huntsburg, do. . 

3-eauga Co 

Leroy, Lake Co. 
Cliautauqua Co., 

N. Y 

Arkwright, do. . 


O . 
BiJ 

i2! 


Twinsburg 

Bartlett's 

Slhanliope's 

Smith's 

J. M. Clark's.... 

Slia.vv'fi 






Armstrong's. .. . 
Cliester X Roads 

Carter's 

Sinclairville 



Appendix. 



523 



CHEESE ST^-TISTICS. 

The following tables in relation to the product of cheese made at different factories of 
New York and the price at which it sold-going over a series of years from 1863 to lb71- 
wiU be found useful. They are taken from the official reports of the factories sent tothe 
Secretary of the American Dairymen's Association, and printed in the annual transactions 
of that Society fi'om year to year : 



CONDENSED KEPOKTS. 

The following Table gives the average number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average 
mice, fnd averfige pounds of milk to one of cured cheese for the several factories 
from 'which full reports have been received for the year 1864 : 



Name of factory. 



McLean 

Adams Cheese 

Blodgett Mills 

GUbert Mills 

Oneida Cheese 

Hart 

Oneida Cheese 

Roberts' 

Wood worth '3 

Higginsville 

Peckaport 

Frankfort • • : 

Herkimer County Union 

Manns ville 

Parker's 

Center Brook 

C. H. Curtiss' 

Decatur • .••;;••• 

VVallkill Creamery Association 

Philadelphia 

Week's 

Daniels' 

Holmesville 

Miller's « 

Collins 

Hawleyton 

Coal Creek 

Stevens 

Charleston 

Nelson 

West Schuyler 

Springfield Center 

Mile Strip 

West Exeter 

Brookfleld 

Orwell 

North Litchfield 

Deansville 

Deerfield and Marcy 

Stanley's 

Scriba 

East Berkshire 

Ingraham & Hustis' 

Whitesto wn 

Turin 

Sears' 

Loraine 

Brown's 

Canton 

B. N. Carrier's 

Westcott's 



Location and County. 



McLean, Tompkins 

Adams, JelTerson 

Cortlandville, Cortiand 

Gilbert Mills, Oswego 

Oneida, Madison 

Oneida Lake, Madison 

Oneida, Madison 

Floyd, Oneida 

Yorkshire, Cattaraugus 

Higginsville, Oneida 

Eaton, Madison 

Frankfort, Herkimer 

Little Falls, Herkimer 

Mannsville, Jefferson 

Ward well, Jefferson 

Otego, Otsego 

Waterville, Om ida 

Decatur, Otsego 

Middletown, Orange 

Barber's Corners, Jefferson.. 

Verona, Oneida 

McDonough, Chenango 

Holmesville, do 

Consiableville, Lewis 

Collins, Erie 

Hawleyton, Broome 

Coal Creek, Herkimer 

Lowville, Lewis 

Charleston, Montgomery 

Nelson, Madison 

West Schuyler, Herkimer.... 

Springfield Center, Otsego... 

Fenner, Madison 

West Exeter, Otsego 

Brookfleld, Madison 

Orwell, Oswego 

North Litchfield, Herkimer.. 

Deansville, Oneida 

Marcy, Oneida 

Adams, Jefferson 

Scriba, Oswego 

Franklin, Vermont 

Adnms, Jefferson 

Whitestown, Oneida 

Turin, Lewis 

Cuyler, Cortland 

Loraine, Jefferson 

Columbus, Chenango 

Canton, St. Lawrence 



Average 

number of 

cows. 



Am'nt of 

c'd cheese 

made in 

pounds. 



Watertown, Jefferson. 



937 
TOO 
290 
3o0 



200 
i20 
245 

850 
475 
460 
600 
300 

'256 
600 
400 

■536 
500 
400 
580 
851 
265 
475 
760 
335 
575 
550 
300 
360 
500 
200 
250 
375 
275 

1,032 
400 
400 

too 

600 
600 
730 
770 
400 
375 

■466 
318 



302,084 
142.518 

71,800 
110,465 
119,346 

65,422 
174,848 

" 124,284 

65,776 

284,543 

191,702 

161,980 

162.000 

72,010 

21,945 

61,140 

207,634 

73,100 

90,401 

173,691 

149,131 

114,246 

182,111 

249,008 

68,660 

176,000 

207,121 

98,101 

199,884 

196,916 

137,866 

122,105 

172,894 

64,999 

72,567 

127,275 

83,094 

295,115 

134,050 

100,744 

101,539 

142,518 

204,025 

206,a33 

206,897 

106,000 

114,429 

68,032 

126,625 

91,639 



21.90 
21.29 
21.14 
21.75 
24.25 
21.70 
21.70 
21.33 
20.07 
18.80 
20.00 
24.00 
23.09 
22.70 
19.68 

2i!25 
22.00 



Av'e price 


Av'e lbs. 


per ft., in 


milk for 


cents and 


one cured 


fractions. 


cheese. 




9.60 


23.09 


9.95 


21.00 


10.12 


18.96 


10.10 


13.32 


9.87 


21.42 


10.-30 


21.05 


9.94 


22.17 




23.00 


9.51 


21.81 


9.75 


20.50 


9.91 


21.23 


9.43 


22.43 


9.88 


23.06 


10.01 


21.50 


9.85 


25.00 


9.23 


22.54 


10.18 




9.50 


2i!68 


10.26 


21.31 


9.59 


• 19.50 


9.75 


20.62 


9.80 


22.77 


9.64 


20.73 


9.85 


21.80 




18.80 


10.00 


21.60 


10.16 


22.25 


9.84 


19.69 


9.78 



9.71 
9.97 
9.85 

10.07 
8.31 

10.00 
9.90 

10.38 

10.26 
9.90 
9.35 

10.00 
9.95 

10.05 
9.58 
9.93 
9.72 
9.64 
9.76 
9.59 
9.52 



524 



Appendix. 



The following table gives the average number of cows, amount of cured cheese avera J 
price, and average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese for the seS factoS 
Irom which full reports have been received for ihe year 1865 • idcioues 



Name of Factobx. 



Whitesb'iro 

Willow Grove. 



Location and Countt. 



Whitesboro. 
Trenton, 



Oneida, 
do . 



chSfe:;::::::::::;:;::::::::-:- g^lf^dPatent, do 



Foster's 

Weeks' 

Rathbun's 

Herkimer County Union 

Starkville 

West Schuyler 

Herkimer 

Oneida 

Lamunion'& C., No. Z..... 

Hunt's 

House ville , \ 

High Market ',\ 

Millers 

Hall's ;.■;;; 

Rees' 

Barker's .'..'.' 

SouthvUie 

Olin's ■.;■.■, 

Volney Center 

Prattville 

Gilbert's Mill 

East Sandy Creek 



Pans, do 

Ourhamville, do . 
Verona, do 

Stittville, do 

Little Palls, Herkimer..'! 
Starkville, do 

West Schuyler, do ..'.'.'. 

Herkimer, do 

Oneida Castle, Madison . . 
Stockbridge. do 

Hubbardsville, do .. 

Houseville, Lewis.... 

High Market. do 

Constableville, do 

Barnes' Corners, do 

Martlnsburgh, do ... 

Richville, St. Lawrence. 

Sduthville, do ... 

Canton, do 

Volney Center, Oswego! ! ! 

Prattville, do . 

Gilbert's Mills, do 



Average 
number of 

cows 



Am'nt of 

c'd cheese 

made in 

pounds. 



^ast feandy creek E. Sandy Creek, do 

PdHcer s. Wardwell, Jefferso 

Rfnf"i"'j?'^^-; Henderson. do 

Bunfoy&Co.'s Loraine, 

F"',o" v-^---, Watertown, 

Ingrahani & Co.'s lAdams. 

Cayiidutta 

Charleston Pou 



Jr Corners. 

Springfield Center ,. 

Smith's 

Center Brook ! 

McLean Association 

Preeville Union 

Burnham's 

Canadawa 

Coon's (4) 

Throopsville 

Simpson's 

Beattie's ! ! ! ! ! 

Holmesville !!!!! 

Brown's 

Mai lie 

Michigan Creamery..!!!!!! 

waiikiii ; 

Worcester Co. Association 

East Berkshire 

Mason s 

Bartlett's 

Baker's Dairy !.'.' 



do 

do 

Adams, do 

B'onda, Montgomery...!" 

Charlest'n 4 Cor., do 

Spring. Center, Otsego. . . . 

West Exeter, do . 

Otego, do . . ' 

McLean, Tompkins 

Freeville, do . 

Sinclairville, Chautauqua! 

Ark Wright, do 

Mina& Sherman, do 

Throopsville, Cayuga 

New Hudson, Allegany. 

Trnxton, Cortland 

Holmesville, Chenango... 

Columbus, do 

Maine, Broome ., 

Middletown, Orange .. 

Middletown. do ! 

VVarren, Massachusetts..!! 
East Berkshire, Vermont.. 
Richmond, do 

Fowler's Mills, Ohio ! 

Fairfield, Michigan 



600 


206.567 


6S8 


275,270 


432 


168,592 


600 


169,71 J 


250 


74,146 


500 


174,110 


650 


206,000 


580 


226,017 


580 


168,037 


1,000 


401,884 


490 


190,538 


525 


191.681 


350 


118,171 


400 


135.552 


800 


257.029 


460 


148,981 


750 


261,364 


5fi0 


125,752 


150 


.58,680 


640 


181,465 


100 


45,060 


354 


106,227 


200 


46,886 


400 


116,1.54 


340 


131,042 


1,000 


292,494 


400 


140, 18;} 


135 


66,847 


800 


220,865 


ITO 


42,453 


875 


262,800 


845 


323,436 


600 


]83,r,84 


443 


141,130 


500 


182,951 


100 


30.696 


1,300 


566,211 


650 


237,836 


793 


186.9,50 


650 


187,909 


1,350 


4911,000 


450 


125.000 


300 


77,198 


600 


222,453 


0.50 


219,0.34 


500 


179,206 


200 


39.560 




92,000 




87,ei86 


450 


].31,.379 


800 


233,351 


80 


29,600 


071 


255,.S90 


46 


29,440 



Av'e price Av'e lbs. 
per »., in I milk for 
cents and one cured 
fractions, cheese, 



27,756 



17.25 
16.12 

]5!96 
16,00 
15.89 
16.27 
16.50 

]6!66 
16.05 
16.09 
16.00 
15.43 
15.60 
15.. ■)8 
16.01 
14.55 
15.41 
14.50 
15.17 
15.25 
15.00 
14.70 
15.25 
14.64 
15.25 

16!25 

15!66 
15.61 
15.60 
15.12 
15.75 
17.45 



10.05 
9.75 
9.42 
9.53 
10.43 
9.99 
9.68 
9.91 
9.90 
9.61 
0.99 
9.79 
9.74 
9.91 
9.50 
9.21 
9.35 
9.63 
9.29 
9.43 
9.45 
9.44 
9.87 

10.00 
9.84 

10.44 
9.87 
9.99 

10.03 
9.73 

10.10 
9.81 

10.00 

10.64 

10.02 

9.77 

10.10 



9,452,567 



17!(;6 

15.93 


9.78 
9.88 
9.78 


15!66 

16.07 

15.25 

16.00 

15.50 , 

16.00 


9!69 
9.82 
9.84 
9.66 
9.75 


15., S3 
^7.00 


l()!i7 
9.50 


15.60 
16.60 


9.80 


15.76 


9.81 



The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese avera-e nrice 

average pounds of milk to one of cured clieese and averncrp wt;^ ,f= r ^^ l^ ' 

. several Factories, Iro.n which full Eeports haveS Scdved.'JS'the^ear' ImT 



Name of Factory. 



Whitesboro 

A. nine's 

Roberts' , 

Dorn's 

Chuckery , 

Weeks' 

Cedarville 

First National 

Lamunion & Clark's .Stockbridge, Madison 

&"'^'i^.- Hubbardsville, do 

g^^celsior Brookfleld, do 

••^^P^re I Florida, Montgomery.. 



LOCTIOJf AND COTJNTT. 



Whitesboro, Oneida . 

North Gage, do 

Floyd, 

Ava, 

Paris, 

Verona, .. 

Cedarville, Herkimer! 
Frankfort, do 



do 
do 
do 
do 



Whole 
number 
of Cows. 



865 
140 
275 
350 
590 
620 
575 
650 
400 
600 
300 
260 



Shri'k- 

age. 
Per ct. 



3 

3^ 



i% 



Amount 
of cured 
cheese 
made, in 
pounds. 



311.881 
59,277 
82,100 
96,716 
168,561 
212,975 
233,802 
259,064 
118,412 
183,479 
97.000 
77,784 



Aver. 

price 
^ B)., in 
cts. and 
fract'ns 



18.07 
17.58 
17.41 



17.54 
17.92 
17. ,32 
17.02 
17.50 
17.91 
17.25 
17.25 



Aver 
w't. 



Aver. 

lbs. 

milk 
for one 
cured 
cheese 



9.8 



Appendix. 
Table for 1866.— Continued. 



525 



NAME OF Factory. 



Charle<iton Four Corners, 

Smith Creek 

Gilbert's Mills 

Ingell & Smith's 

Pratville 

Trum bull's 

Miller's 

Glensdale 

Sulphur Springs 

High Market 

Canton 

Adams 

Bonfoy,B. & A 

Collins Center 

First Collins 

Brant Center 

Canada wa 

Sinclairville 

Seattle's 

I'hroopsville C. M. A 

Simpson's 

De Witt CM. A 

Hawleyton 

Springville 

Bridge water 

Spring Hill 

Valley 

Fairfield 

VVilder's 

Compton 



Location and Countx. 



Charl'tn 4 Cor., Montgomery. 
Pnlatine, do 

Gilbert's Mills, Oswego 

Volney, do 

Mexico. do 

Pulaski, do 

Constableville, Lewis 

Glensdale, do 

Lowville, do 

High Market, do 

Canton, St. Lawrence 

Adams, Jefferson 

Lorraine, do 

[Collins Center, Erie 

do do 

Brant, do 

Arkwright Chautauqua 

Sinclairville, do 

Truxton, Cortland 

Auburn, Cayuga 

New Hudson, Allegany 

He Witt, Onondaga 

Hawleyton, Broome 

Springville, Pennsylvania 

Bridgewater, do .... 

do do .... 

HInesburg. Vermont 

Fairfield, Mictiigan 

Evansville, Wisconsin 

Compton, Quebec, Canada . . . 



Whole 
number 
ot Cows. 



525 
675 
430 
375 
616 
270 
650 
700 
770 
450 
675 
800 
530 
602 
625 
300 
687 
1,049 
468 
400 
400 
300 
200 

"266 
148 
500 
260 
339 
250 



18,779 



Shri'k- 

age. 
Per ct. 



Amount 
of cured 
cheese 
made, in 
pounds. 



163,8£6 
222,390 
151,621 
126,939 
134,181 

67,406 
229,852 
273,490 
214,282 
136,157 
107,878 
248,376 
181,686 
246,739 
216,479 
105,466 
186,608 
238.060 
1.50,720 
139,455 
136,030 
103,453 

60,000 

'62,'666 
44,016 
128,196 
10l,.335 
103,650 
60,000 



6.!?56,412 



Aver. 

price 
pr lb. in 
cts. and 
fract'ns 



17.25 
17.25 
16.70 
10.70 
14.83 
16.00 
18.01 
17.10 
15.48 
17.21 



16.76 
17., 32 
15.86 
16.52 
16.75 
15.43 
16.67 
17.59 
16.41 
16.13 



18.89 
18.00 
17.50 
17.61 
16.60 
16.42 



Aver, 
w't. 



91 

106 



Aver, 
lbs. 

milk 
for one 

cured 
cheesa 



10.00 
9.95 
9.73 
9.72 
9.96 
9.62 
9.51 
9.59 
9.84 
9.35 
9.56 
9.98 
9.69 
9.88 
9.43 



9.65 
9.39 

9.85 

■9;29 
10.07 
9.28 

'9!66 
9.55 
9.82 
9.53 
9.60 
9.25 



76M 9.68 



The following Table gives tbe number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, 
average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several 
Factories from which full Reports have been received, for the year 1867 : 



Name of Factory. 



Verona Landing C. M. A 

Weeks' 

Manhelm 

Miller's 

Markliam'a 

Koot 

Lenox 

Hamlet 

Port Byron C. M. A 

Gowanda 

Collins Center 

Gilbert's Mills 

Union 

Prattville 

Granby Center 

Union 

8. W. Oswego 

Rhodes' 

Union 

Vermillion 

Volney Center 

Smith's 

Union 

Pennellville 

Phoenix 

Smith's 

Bowen's Corners 

Fairfield 



Location and County. 



Higginsville, Oneida . . . 
Verona, do ... 

Manheim, Herkimer.... 
Constableville, Lewis .. 
CoUiersville, do 

Root, Montgomery 

Oneida Lake, Madison . 
Hamlet, Chautauqua... 

Port Byron, Cayuga 

Gowanda, Erie 

Collins C'tr do 

Gilbert's Mills, Oswego. 
Mexico, do 

do do 

Granby Center, do 
Colosse, 
Oswego, 
Scriba, 

do 
Vermillion, 
Volney, 
Fulton, 
Sandy Creek, 
Sohroeppel, 

do 
New Haven, 
Granby, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



Whole 

number of 

Cows. 



Fairfield, Michigan . 



200 
7-10 
450 

1,050 
400 
475 
500 
646 
175 
550 
681 
450 

1,200 
260 
220 
500 
220 
138 
325 
490 
350 
500 
229 
350 
475 
175 
489 
540 

12,778 



Amou't of 

c'd cheese 

made, in 

pounds. 



79,763 
250,510 
184,141 
349,503 
117,696 
128,':60 
147,967 
129,633 
38,891 
179,440 
271,410 
158,984 
244,609 
66,592 
51,771 
133,663 
37,750 
37,000 
88,400 
104,898 
120,463 
148,543 
70,030 
107,588 
126,500 
33,646 
lo5,4'i2 
215,498 

3,779,045 



Ave. price 
per lb., in 

cents and 
fractions. 



14.00 
14.40 

14.42 
13.94 
13.02 
13.50 

ii'.CT 
13.13 
15.12 
13.08 
13.16 
12.50 
11.50 
12.13 
12,50 
12,50 
13.00 
12.20 
12.26 
13.00 
12.92 
13.00 
13.00 
12.50 
12.75 
14.00 

13.12 



Aver- 
age 
weight 



Aver. lbs. 

milk for 
one lb. c'd 

cheese. 



9.75 
9.91 
S).75 
9.58 
9.77 
10.00 
10.07 
9.90 
10,12 
9,54 
9,43 
9.64 
10.02 
10.20 
9.75 
9.83 
10.50 
10,00 
9.86 
9,91 
9,91 
9,41 
10.00 
9.75 
9,97 
9.70 
9.. 33 
9.53 

9.83 



526 



Appenbix. 



The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, 
average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several 
Factories from which full Reports have been received, for the year 1868 : 



Name op Factory. 



Bagg's 

Wilcox's 

Verona Landing 

Weeks' 

West Canada Creek 

Cook, Ives & Co. 's 

Newviile Assoeiiition 

Korth Cazenovia 

Leb-inon 

Brown & Co.'s 

J. F. Torpy'8 

Beech & Co.'s 

Mack's 

B. Fletcher's 

Sulphur Springs 

Miller's 

Leyden Cheese Association 

Evans Mills 

Cooper's 

Jefferson County Factories. 

Mexico Union 

Prattville 

Colosse 

Hastings 

Smith's 

Smith's 

Boot 

Delphi 

East Fabius 

Beattie's 

Orangeville 

Lancaster 

Simpson's 

Meadow Valley 

H.&S. Smith's 

Sinclearville 

Canadawa 

Clear Spring 

Gerry 

Valley 

Carter's 

Wilder's 

Elk Mountain 

Blue Grass 

Ontario 



Location and County. 



Holland Patent, Oneida 

Paris, do 

Higginsville, do 

Verona, do 

North Gage, do 

Salisbury, Herkimer 

Newville, do 

Chittenango Falls, Madison. 

Leonardsville, do 

Georgetown, do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

do do 

Lowville, Lewis 

Constableville, do 

Ley den, do 

Evans Mills, Jefferson 

do do 

(Aggregate) 

Mexico, Oswego 

do do 

Colosse, do 

Hastings, do 

Volney, do 

NewHaven,do 

Root, Montgomery 

Delphi, Onondaga 

Fabius, do 

Truxton, Cortland 

Orangeville, Wyoming 

Lancaster, Erie 

New Hudson, Allegany 

Ellicottville, Cattaraugus. . . 

West Exeter, Otsego 

Sinclearville, Chautauqua.. 

ArkwHght, do 

Fredonia, do 

Gerry, do 

Hinesville. Vermont 

Painesville Ohio 

Evansville, Wisconsin 

Asheville, North Carolina.. 

Childsburg, Kentucky 

Norwich, Ontario, Canada . . 



Whole 


Amount 


Average 


Aver- 


Aver. lbs. 


number of 


of cheese 


price per 


age 


one pound 
cheese. 


Cows. 


made. 


100 pounds 


weight 


5C6 


169,249 


15.80 




9,92 


140 


42,126 


15.13 




10.26 


300 


118,770 


15.33 




10,17 


560 


183,616 


16,09 


60 


9.80 


350 


124,075 


16,50 




9.75 


550 


183,319 


16,00 


69 


10,15 


650 


193,110 


16,64 




10.00 


oOO 


73,450 


15.00 






450 


148,750 






9.50 


550 


179,473 


15.47 






140 


42,284 


15.35 






200 


58,185 


15.62 








52.530 


15.86 






300 


102,184 


15.63 






500 


139,111 


15.66 


56 


9.91 


1,000 


300,649 


15,87 




9.88 


552 


170,246 


15,32 




9,75 


1,100 


335,850 


15.21 


60 


9.88 


270 


51,078 


15.. 33 


63 


9.65 


!:3,C92 


6,245,S06 


15.33 


60 


10,00 


800 


164,256 


15,02 


78 


10.06 


450 


82,324 


14,60 


75 


10,28 


400 


77,573 


15.00 


75 


10.12 


130 


12,675 


14.00 




10.32 


475 


153,577 


14.00 




9.31 


130 


26,120 


15.50 




9.14 


530 


139,351 


15.53 


74 


9.90 


450 


148,7(,-5 


15.25 




10.17 


450 


113,023 


15,30 




9.58 


too 


109,233 


15,75 




10.27 


200 


109,487 


15.29 




9.63 
9.80 


535 


160,881 


15,16 




9,50 


175 


55,.327 


15,06 




9.75 


375 


115,624 


15,65 




10,19 


813 


203,567 


15,27 


53 


9,67 


968 


258,348 


15.01 


55 


9.62 


410 


74,078 


15.00 


70 


10.38 


400 


80,916 




60 


9.90 


400 


123,100 






9.90 


200 


41,039 


15,00 




9.80 


300 


78,745 


16,25 






230 


30,000 


25,00 






250 


72,500 


16,70 




10.10 


300 


72,070 


14,10 




9,87 


42,043 


11,505,640 


15.65 


65 


9.88 



The following Table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, 
average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight, for the several 
Factories from which full Eeports have Ijeen received, for the year 1869 : 



Name or Factory. 



Whltesboro 

Willow Grove 

Wilcox 

Lee Center 

Waterville 

West Branch 

Ward's 

Vernon 

Verona Landing 

Weeks' 

Newville Association 

Herkimer County Union.... 

Danube Cold Spring 

Smith's 

Cazenovia 

Bridgeport 

Excelsior 

Otis' 

Turin 

Sulphur Spring 

Evans Mills 

Hamlin's 

Alexandria Bay 



Location and County. 



Whltesboro, Oneida... 
Trenton, do . . . 

Sauquoit, do 

Lee Center, do . , . 
Waterville, do 
West Branch, do ... 
Holland P't'nt, do ... 
Vernon, do 

Higginsville, do ... 
Verona, do ... 

Little Falls, Herkimer 
do do 

do do 

Frankfort, do 

Cazenovia, Madison ... 
Bridgeport, do 
Brookfleld, do 

Deer River, Lewis 

Turin, do 

Lowville, do 

Evans Mills, Jefferson. 
Rutland, do 

Alexandria Bay,do 



Whole 

number of 

Cows, 



800 
1,000 
200 
400 
780 

'275 
650 
400 
590 
856 
350 
200 
800 
581 
300 
400 
850 
550 
571 

1,140 
350 
320 



Amount 

of cheese 

made. 



260.307 
389,876 
51,226 
139,675 
215,69d 

■ 99',i6i 

140,566 
199,506 
311,906 
111,848 

77,439 
311,413 
189.531 

97,418 
136,490 
129,618 
169.806 
158,537 
350,191 
102,176 

93,262 



Average 


Aver- 


price per 
100 pounds 


age 


weight 


16,69 




17.02 


68 


15.25 




16.38 




16.17 




16.34 




16.52 




16.00 




16,71 


62 


17.45 




16,55 




16,56 




16,77 


67 


15.75 


65 


15.00 






68 


16.25 


54 


15.98 


60 


16.13 


62 


15.84 


64 


16.22 


65 


15.72 


60 



Aver. lbs. 

milk for 
one pound 

cheese. 

9.93 

9.99 
10,09 

9.47 

9.46 

9.44 

9.77 

9.68 

9.75 

9.85 

9.83 
10.11 

9.66 

9.90 

9.69 

9.80 

9.55 

9.54 

9.53 

9.64 

9.45 

9.90 

9.71 





Appendix. 
Table for 1869.— Continued. 






527 


Name of Factory. 


Location and Countt. 


Whole 

number of 

Cows. 

400 
950 
500 
350 
700 
639 
390 
150 
600 
730 
345 
325 
450 
200 
355 
250 
900 
250 
290 

■766 
400 
100 
280 


Amount 

of cheese 

made. 


Average 
price per 
100 pounds 


Aver- 
age 
weight 


Aver. lbs. 

milk for 
one pound 

cheese. 




South Champion, Jefferson. 
Mexico. Uswego 


142,129 
257,946 
163,746 
110,581 
218,349 
184,478 
112,705 

48,112 
196,716 
306,339 
127,107 
119,533 
150,451 

71,496 
113,650 

47,221 
304,567 

96,224 

167,758 
137,161 
20,000 
60,500 


15.73 
15.86 
15.43 
15.10 
15.81 
16.88 

ib.m 

15.67 
16.28 
15.53 
15.41 
16.15 

isiid 

15.75 
16.62 
15.92 

is 142 
17.00 
15.50 


87 
62 

52 
60 


9.65 




9.76 




Gilbert's Mills, do 


9.17 






9.40 




Uermon, St. Liiwreuce 

Root, Montffomery 


9.U 




9.80 






9.77 






9.45 




Gowanda, Cattaraugus 

do do 

Farraersville, do 

Fredonia, Chautauqua 


9.35 


First Collins 


9.00 




9.33 




9.68 


North Collins 


9.22 












9.43 




Sharon Center, Sclioharie... 

West Edraeston, Otsego 

Middle Granville, Wash'n.. 
Fort Ann, do . . 




Eagle 


9.73 


North Bend 


9.75 












Hinesburg, Vermont 


9.48 




9.90 










Rosendale, Wisconsin 


9.96 








22,167 


6,928,193 


16.02 


65 


9.64 



The following table gives the number of cows, amount of cured cheese, average price, 
average pounds of milk to one of cured cheese, and average weight for the several 
factories from which full reports have been received for the year 1870: 



NAME OF Factory. 



Location and Coitnty. 



Whole 

number of 

cows- 



Amount 

of cheese 

made. 



Average 
price per 
100 lbs. 



Av'ge 
weight 



Average 

lbs. milk 

for one ft. 

cheese. 



Willow Grove 

Weeks 

Rome Association — 

Lee Center 

Stittville 

Wilcox 

Hampton Association 

Glen 

Smith Creek 

Root 

South Jordan 

New Woodstock 

Valley 

North Fairfield 

Sulphur Spring 

Ley den Association.. 
McLean do 

South Berlin 

Pierrepont 

Simpson 

Bast Ashford 

Gowanda 

Burnham's (3) 

Riverside 

Cold Spring 



Trenton, Oneida 

Verona, do , 

tlome, do 

Lee Center, do 

Stittville, do 

Sauquoit, do 

Hampton, do 

Glen, Montgomery 

Fort Plain, do 

Root, do 

Brookfleld, Madison 

New Woodstock, do 

Stockbridge, do 

North Fairfield, Herkimer. 

Lowville, Lewis 

Leyden, do 

McLean, Tompkins 

South Berlin, Rensselaer.. 
Pierrepont, St. Lawrence. . 

New Hudson, Allegany 

East Ashford, Cattaraugus 
Gowanda, do 

Chatauqua 

Rochester, Minnesota 

Whitewater, Wisconsin — 



900 
700 
750 
650 
800 
150 
450 
725 

1,000 
775 
425 
840 
600 
500 
450 
370 
525 
270 
420 
700 
550 
430 

1,734 
180 
150 

15,044 



363,302 
221,061 
252,685 
198,448 
267,271 
38,294 
147,099 
181,600 
315,384 
185,462 
136,553 
244,611 
171,787 
168,217 
157,102 
114,609 
200,261 
70,777 
93,787 
196,072 
129,961 
158.900 
629,705 
38,727 
41,111 

4.622,786 



14.25 
14.28 
14.06 
14.00 
14.24 
13.15 
13.65 
13.50 
14.75 
13.83 
13.80 
13.80 
13.87 
14.83 
13.62 
13.43 

1,3;45 
13.65 
15.00 
13.75 
13.82 
13.23 



13.90 



10.10 
10.00 
10.78 
9.94 
10.30 
10.50 
10.04 
10.21 
9.90 
10.42 
9.66 
9.95 
9.78 
9.68 
10.16 
9.92 
9.62 
10.12 
9.42 
9.99 
9.76 
9.49 
9.89 
9.70 
9.63 



528 



Appendix. 



THE CHEESE TRADE— 1869, 1870 AND 1871. 

The following tables are copied from the columns of tiie Ulica Herald :— We give 
below full tables of the cheese trade for the years 1869 and 1870 and up to Au'^ust 1871 
showing the receipts of boxes of cheese in New York city and the exports, the highest 
quotation in Liverpool and New York, and the highest price of gold for each' week o°f the 
two years. The totals of 1870 show a healthy growth, both in production and foreign 
trade, over 1869. The average highest quotation of gold from tlie first week of Maylo 
the close of the year 1869 was 131% ; and for the same portion of 1870, 117. The average 
highest quotation of cheese in the city for the same period of 1869 was 18Ud and of 
1870, 153^c.: 




Appendix. 



529 



15 
22 
29 
February 5. 
12 
19 

March 5 

li. 
19 
2G 

April 2, 

9 
16 
23 
30 

May 7 

14 

21 

28 
June 4 

11 

18 

25 

July 2. 

9 

16, 

23, 

30. 
August 6. 

13. 

20. 

27 
September 3. 

10. 

17, 

24. 
October 1. 

8. 

15. 

22. 

29. 
November 5. 

12. 

19. 

26. 
December 3. 

10. 

17. 

24. 

31. 

Total..,. 



Beceipts. 



Exports. 



3,450 

4,040 

3,362 

5,540 

3,789 

4,000 

4,992 

0,791 

1,484 

1,500 

5,266 

6,726 

5,815 

8,791 

6,956 

4 576 

9,543 

4.554 

8,868 

13,270 

18,722 

16,.Si^4 

19,088 

14,025 

40,247 

55,355 

25,274 

73,830 

58,546 

64.491 

66,291 

58,352 

31,546 

32,069 

60,106 

69,824 

60,208 

6 ',239 

61,607 

38,01)6 

43,792 

28,279 

60,619 

53,330 

63,';51 

40,695 

28,3,38 

64,361 

59,489 

32,346 

13,174 

11,636 

1,592,403 



2.726 
1,703 
7,813 
4103 
6,604 
2,60d 
2,740 
3,028 
5,735 
11,017 
7,478 
6,956 
14,705 
8,627 
6,378 
7,396 
10,293 
9,639 
9,484 
11,'33 
12,636 
15,750 
22,842 
36,861 
40,034 
47,500 
45,378 
51,401 
59,056 
50,751 
58,090 
60,587 
41,886 
39,354 
37,819 
62,007 
42,082 
24.453 
31,431 
24,491 
19,880 
12,022 
28,033 
18,844 
19,931 
19,245 
20,539 
34,627 
23,059 
22,733 
13.935 
6,663 

1,184,687 



Price in 
Liv'rpool, 



70s. 

7l3. 

71s. 

72s. 

72s. 

72s. 

73s. 

74s. 

73s. 

71s. 

70s. 6(1. 

693. 

703. 6(1. 

71s. 6d. 

71s. 6d. 

73s. 6d. 

74s. 

74s. 

74s. 

74s. 

72s. 

68s. 6d. 

68s. 

67s. 

66s. 

66s. 

64s. 

63s. 

63s. 

63s. 

63s. 

62s. 6d. 

62s. 

61s. 6d. 

61s. 6d. 

61s. 6d. 

61s. 

61s. 



66s. 

67s. 6d. 
69s. 

69s. 6d. 
693. 6d. 
71s. 6cl. 
71s. 6d. 
72s. 6d. 
72s. 6d. 
72s. 6d. 
73s. 
733. 



Price in 
N'w York. 



17 <^ cts 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

18 

17H 

17>i 

17 

16 

15K 

15>i 

16 

17 

17 

17 

17 

17 

16K 

16 

14K 

14X 

14:^ 

14K 
14>^ 
14^ 
14Ji 
UVi 

uy, 

14K 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14 

14K 

U% 

It^ 
15 
15!4 
15M 

15 5^ 

16 

16 

16 

16K 

16>^ 

16 V^ 
16M 



Price of 
Gold. 



122 

121% 

120=^ 

121 

120% 

119K 

118^ 

115>g 

112 

112 

lll>i 

lUH 

113K 

myt 

115 

115 

115 

114X 

lU}i 

lU'A 

113>i 

113 

111 

112 

112 

116^ 

119K 

121K 

121X 

117M 

114^ 

11651 

114 

114 

114 

113 

114 

113K 

113K 

113 

lll>i 

m% 

lUX 
112?^ 

111?^ 

lUK 
110^ 
110^ 

noji 

110^ 



1871. 


Receipts. 


Exports. 


Price in 
liiv'rpool. 


Price in 
N"w York. 


Price of 

Gold. 




7 


9,574 
4,870 
6,468 
2,385 
5,414 
4,5.)3 
3,967 
2,993 
5,3,30 
5.938 
6,927 
8,012 
6,856 
3,519 
4,092 
2,860 
3,608 
3,636 
5,164 
9,141 
16,029 
22,&30 
26,580 
43,258 
48,799 
47,517 
46,345 
56,478 
(57,679 
59,986 


7,150 

6,685 

6,C85 

9,722 

9,459 

9,130 

11,174 

17,653 

8,344 

9,365 

8.364 

9,671 

4,381 

10,661 

10,062 

8,178 

7,559 

7,559 

10,062 

11,698 

16,927 

20,472 

23,742 

37,,543 

37,293 

45,533 

41,.340 

55,869 

63,420 

61„321 


73s. 

V3s. 

73s. 

733. 

723. 

72s. 

72s. 

72s. 

71s. 

71s. 6d. 

71s. 6d. 

703. 

70s. 

70s. 

69s. 

693. 

69s. 

69s. 

66s. 6d. 

663. 

643. 

633. 

61s. 6d. 

60s. 

593. 

58s. 

563. 

553. 

533. 

52s. 


16 cts. 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16X 

16 

16 

15 

15 

15 

14 

14 

15 

14 

13 

13 

13 

12M 

11^ 
IIK 

11 


110 j^ 




14 


110^ 




21 


110 ¥ 




28 


110 ff 




y 4 


lUK 




^ 11 ::...:::::::.::::::::;: 


lUK 




18 


lUK 




25 


lUM 




4 


111 




11 


lllK 




18 


m% 


April 


25 

1 


il?^ 




8 


IWA 




15 


mx 




22 


UlM 




29 


lllJi 


May 


6 


UIK 




13 


lUX 




20 


112 




27 


111^ 


June 


3 

10 


112M 

n2% 




17 


112% 




24 


112>^ 


July 


1 

8 


113 




15 


112% 




22 

29 


112 
112K 



530 



Appendix. 



We take the following from the Farmers' and Meclianics' Manual:— "The milk of 
nearly all animals contain the same ingredients. The best known varieties consist nearly of j 



Caseine 

Butter 

Milk Sugar... 
Saline Matter 
Water 



Woman. 



1.5 
3.6 
6.5 
0.5 



4.5 
3.1 
4.8 
0.6 

87.0 



100.0 



1.8 
0.1 
6.1 
0.3 
91.7 



100.0 



Goat. 



4.1 
3.3 
5.3 
0.6 

86.7 



4.5 
4.2 
5.0 
0.7 

85.6 



100.0 



" One gallon o^pure water weighs nearly 8^^ pounds avoirdupois, hence a pint weighs 
about a pound. One quart of milk, wine measure, weighs 35 ounces. One quart of milk 
beer measure, weighs 41 ounces." ' 



LIST OF CHEESE AND BUTTEE FAOTOEIES, 

AS REPORTED TO AMERICAN DAIRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION, IN 1871. 

N-R-W YORK.-94G FACTORIES. 
ONEIDA COUNTY.- 94 FACTORIES. 



Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. 

RoraeC. M. A Rome 650 

Excelsior. do 6U0 

Greenflelil's do 

Cady's do 30O 

D. U. Carpenter's do 600 

Dick's do 

Squires' Delta 

RidKe Mills Ridge Mills 300 

T. D. Roberts'... .. do 300 

E. Lewis' Deerfleld 900 

Tanner's Oriskany 700 

Mitchell's Remsen 200 

Thomas' :.. do 400 

StarrHill do 100 

Weeks' Verona 600 

Bmrell's do 400 

Verona Centr.al do 325 

Willo w Grove Trenton 1,000 

W.W.Wheeler's do 350 

J.C.Owen's do 650 

Powell's do 

Whitaker's do 250 

Wight's Wh i tesboro 900 

Bagsf's StittviUe TOO 

Deei-fleld & Marcy Utica 400 

South Corners Vienna 400 

Vienna, do 350 

West Vienna West Vienna • 

Blossvale Blcssvale 406 

Glenmore Annsville 500 

Bagg's H'jUand Patent 500 

J. G. Cotes' do 400 

J.F.Pierce's do 550 

G.W. Palmer's North Brldgewater... 600 

Deans villc Deansville I'OO 

Hill's Westernville 200 

Williams' do 200 

Waldo's do 350 

Kirklanil Kirkland 300 

Wallace's West Branch 400 

Countrvman's do 

J. L. Dean's. Hecla 200 

Lowell Lowell 600 

Wood s Lee Center 500 

Saxton's do 300 

Charton's do 400 

Capron's do . — • 



Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. 

Northwestern C. M. A Northwestern 

(Mil's do 

Bionson's do 

Verona Landing Higginsville 400 

Doxtater's do 250 

L. S. Davis' Florence 500 

Cold Spring do 400 

MadRiver do 250 

Vernon Vernon 720 

Clark's do 50O 

M. Snell do 300 

Bionson & Co Vernon Center 300 

West Canada Creek North Gage 500 

A. Blue's do 150 

J.C.Blue's do 700 

Briggs' Marcy Hill 

Wood's Turin 

Shepard's do 

Franklin Franklin Iron Works . 

Camp's Westmoreland 

Cheney's.,. do 

Hampton C. M. A do 

Marshall's Watervillo 

Curtis' do 

Sh earman's New Hartford 

Hampton Stanwix 

Schuyler's do 

Foster's Durhamville 

J. H. Brook's Steuben 

Chuckery Paris 450 

Wilcox do 

A. S. King's Sauquoit 

A. Session's. do 

A.Tucker's do 

S. Thomas' Cassville 

E. A. Palmer's Clayville 

Union Grove Camden 

Harvey's Boon ville 

Reed&Co do 500 

ICnoxboro Knoxboro 400 

Rath bun's New London 400 

NowLondonC. M. A do 300 

Ray's North Bay 

Spinnings' Taberg , 

G. M. Wood's Stokes 

Hurlburt's Ava 

Jones' do 



500 
400 
350 
500 
700 
250 
500 
500 
300 
425 
590 



250 
300 
200 
150 



AVAYNE COUNTY.— 13 FACTORIES. 



Walworth Walworth 300 

Butler Center South Butler 240 

Williamson Williamson 

Palmy la Palmyra 

Safford's Sava nnah 175 

South Butler South Uutler 

Macedon Macedon 300 



Wilbur's Newark 

Lincoln West Walworth 

Marion Marion 

Lee & Sheffield Rose 400 

Allowaf Lyons 500 

Naing's do 



CHENANGO COUNTY.— 24 FACTORIES. 



Tuttle Col umbus 

Hira ra Brown's do 

A. R. Sage's New Berlin Center. 

Holmes & Co.'s Columbus 

George Buel's King Settlement... 

Sherburne Sherburne 

Smyrna Smyrna 

Billings' do 

Plymouth Plymouth 

Buckley & Co.'s Oxford 

Harrisville Sherburne 

White & Son's do 



230 Lewis Andrews South Otsellc 

400 Holmesville Holmesville 

800 Daniels' McDonough 

600 Ijincklaen Lincklaen 

600 Wheeler's do 

700 Harrington do 

Norwicn C. M. Co Norwich 

Frink's do 

Leach's do 

Sage's South New Berlin. 

350 Rich's do 

Brown, Sage & Co do 



650 
600 
500 



532 



Appendix. 



CORTLAND COUNTY.— 26 FACTORIES. 



^ame of Factory. Location. JVb. of Cows, 

Cuyler Village Cuyler 600 

Cold Spring do 300 

Isbell's do 250 

Keeler's do 200 

CnylerHill do 450 

New Boston do 630 

li. Sears' DeRuyter 1,000 

Kenney Truxton 400 

Beattie's do 400 

Blodgett's Mills CortUand vlUe 300 

East Homer East Homer 450 

Wightman's Marathon - — - 

Potter i& Barber's Scott 300 



Name of Factory. 



Location. JVb. of Cows. 



Blodgett Mills Blodgett Mills. 

Raymond's Freble 

Kilt's do 

Homer C. M. (^o Homer 

Tattle's Freetown ..'.'. 

Cincicnatus Cincinnatus 

South Cortland S' iu*h Cortland 

Meecham's Marathon 

Brown's Taylor 

Keeney Settlement Keeney Settiement!!! 

Whitmarsli do 

H. H. Smith's Apulia 

Har 1 ord Harford '..'.'. 



OSWEGO COUNTY.— 58 FACTORIES. 



M. Pierce's South Richland 300 

Gilbert Mills GilbertMills 430 

Dick's Pennellville 

Volney Center Volney 310 

Whittemore's Scriba 500 

Insell & Smith's Volney . '. 375 

East Sandy Creuli East Sandy Creet 

Robbins & Co.'s do 600 

Suydam's do 400 

Trumbull's Pulaski 270 

Hull's do 300 

Cold Spring do 300 

Jones' South Richland 400 

J.. Willis do 300 

Blunt's Orwell 150 

Union Colosse 400 

Union Mexico 500 

Weygint's Pratville 5:30 

Banaska's Ph oenix 

Morton's Orwell 600 

Sweet's Phoenix ■ 

Smith's Hastings 

Hastings C. M. Co do 

Oswego Center Oswego Center 400 

Bowen's Corners Bowen's Corners • ■ 

Wilcox's Oswego Falls 

West Monrf)e C. M. A West Monroe ■ 

Titus & Wilson Hannibal 

Gardner's South Hannibal • 



Fairdale Fairdale 

McMullen's Hinmanville 

Mead's East Sandy Creek. 

Bander's Caughdenoy 

Smith's New Haven 

Daggett's do 

Donnelly's North Scriba 

Southwest Os" ego 

Vermill ion Vermillion 

Smith's Volney 

Hubbard's 

Jennings' Palermo 

East Scriba 

Sweet's Schroeppel 

Gregg's do 

First National - Phoenix. 



Central Square Central Square.. 

West Slanual 

Granby Center 

Rhodes Scriba 

Union Sandy Creek 

Union .. Scriba 

Amboy Amboy Corners . 

Smith's Fulton „ . 

Looniis' Palermo 

Clough & Co.'s Constantia 

Cold Spring Richland 

P. Wyman's Orville 

Burr's Molino 



200 
400 
400 

~50ci 
50G 
250 
lUfl 

?6fl 

472 

13fl 

250 

22(3 

150" 

230 

325 

200 



MADISON COUNTY.— 65 FACTORIES. 



Norton's Eaton 

Morse's do 600 

Ingram's West Eaton 500 

Pecksport Bouckville 4;0 



Erieville Erieville . 

Seymour's Lebanon 

Smith Valley 

Hill's Oneida Castle 

Cazenovia Cazenovia 

C. Bridge do 

Blodgett's do 

Perkins' do 

Canaseraga Canaseraga 

Elphick's Clock ville 

North Cazenovia Chittenango Falls. 

Chittenango do 

Lebanon Leonardsville , 

Allard's Georgetown 

Quaker Basin do 

Torpy's do 

Mack's do 

Brown & Co.'s do 

Beech&Co.'s do 

Fletcher's do 

Stafford's Penner 

Solsville Solsville 

Pine Woods Pine Woods 

Baker's Eitrl ville 

Chenango Valley do 

Cowasalon Wampsville 

Hunt's Hamilton 

Keith 's — North Brookfleld. . . 

East Boston East Boston 



700 
400 
600 
700 
600 



450 
500 
300 

500 
150 
300 
150 

im 

500 
J75 
200 
300 
700 
(00 
300 



Chapman's Oneida Late 

Hart's do 

Morrell's do 

Cole's Munnsville ...'.'.'.'. 

Linckhi en DeRuyter 

DeRuyter do 

Kirkv'lle Kirk ville '. 

Fletcher's Peterboro 

Val ley Stockbridge 

Adam's do 

New Woodstock New Woodstock'.! 

Hunt's Hubbardsville. . . . 

Lamunion & Co Morrisville 

Morrisville do 

Nelson's Nelson .' 

Ellison's Brookfleld 

Excelsior do 

York do 

Union do 

South Brookfleld South Brookfleld. 

Bridgeport Bridgeport 

Lakewood v do 

Fort Bushnell's Lakeport 

Gifford's do 

Tucker's Mile Strip 

Lenox C. M. A Canastota 

Merrill's Madison 

MadisonC. M.A do 

Siloam Siloam 

Pratt's Hollow Pratt's Hollow... 

Shedd's Corners Shedd's Corners.. 

Downing's Pine Woods 



250 
150 
350 
300 
600 
500 
760 
450 

600 
200 
400 
600 
600 
200 
350 
225 
200 
250 
300 
273 
400 

JiOO 
500 



400 
250 



SCHUYLER COUNTY.— 2 FACTORIES. 



Cook & Co.'s Havana . 



A Ipine Alpine. 



DUTCHESS COUNTY.— 1 FACTORY. 



Sheldon's Stissing . 



FRANKLIN COUNTY.— 6 FACTORIES. 

Bombay Bombay Fort Covington Center Ft. Covington Center. 

Malone No. 1 Malone Sargent's South Bangor 

Fort Covington Fort Covington Patterson Chateaugay 



Appendix. 



533 



LEWIS COUNTY.-39 FACTORIES. 
laocation. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. 



Name of Factory. 

Sulphur Springs Lowville 800 

FoUs' do 750 

Hall's Biirnes Corners 200 

Miller's Constableville 1,000 

Wilder's do 

McDonald's do 

Valley do iaO 

High Market High Marl;et ;... 460 

Houseville Huuseville 800 

Glensdale Glensdale 700 

Sugar River Ley den 940 

Wood's Turin 400 

Bush's do 500 

Shepherd's do 230 

Williams' do 150 

Evans' do 550 

Carpenter's HouReville 150 

Rees' Martlnsburgh 200 

Dunton's do 350 

New Bremen Crogan 



Location. No. of Coiua. 



Union West Martinsburgh. . . 

Green's do 

Kelsey's do 

West Lowville West Lowville 

Searles' do 

Alexander do 

Vary Harrisburgh 

Clark's do 

Lanpheie's do 

Knapp's do 

Union Deer River 

Deer River do 

Austin Denmark 

Markham's Collinsville 

Lyon's Lyon's Falls 

Leyden C. A Leyden 

Post's Port Leyden 

Whitney's Copenhagen 

Bent's do 



MONTGOMERY COUNTY.-36 FACTORIES. 



Charleston Four Corners. .Charleston Four Cor.. C25 

Smith Creek B'ort Plain 1,000 

Dunkle's do ■ 

Roof's do 

Empire Burtonville 500 

Florida do 

Hallsville Hallsville 600 

Freysbush Freysbush 

Hessville Sprout Brook • 

Cold Spring Stone Araba 500 

Water ville Ames 750 

Flat Creek Flat Creek 300 

Brookman & Co.'s Fort Plain 600 

Ford's Bush Minden 675 

Cayadutta Fonda 800 

Bates, Sneli & Co St. Johnsville 350 

Snell, Smith & Co do 

Humphrey's Charleston 



Root Root 

Wier's do 

Glen Glen 

Dief endorf s Amsterdam 

W.Green's do 

Dorn's do 

Florida Minaville 

S witzer Hill Fonda 

Schuyler's do 

Mohawk do 

Cold Spring Palatine Bridge. 

Union do 

Failing's do 

Gatesville Randall 

Mother Creek St. ,1 ohnsville 

Buel Buel 

Mapletown 

Kilts' Canajoharie 



ORLEANS COUNTY.— 1 FACTORY. 



Cooley & Thompson's Albion. 



STEUBEN COUNTY.— 8 FACTORIES. 



Spalding's Howard . . 

Bennett's do 

Kanona Kanona .. 

Wing's Campbell . 



400 J. Davis' Greenwood 

500 Mason's North Cameron , 

300 Spalding & Co Avoca 

— - Sitterly 's Bath 



ONONDAGA COUNTY.— 32 FACTORIES. 



L. H. Webster's Fabius 500 

Delphi Delphi 450 

Salisbury's Apulia 600 

Alexander's Lysander 

Edwards' Manlius 

Hopper's CoUumer 160 

Hiscock's James ville 

Seneca Bald wins ville 150 

Spafford Spafford 

Loomis' Cicero 

Van Bramer's do 

Sternberg's Cicero Center 

S. L. Vail's Delphi ■ 

Elbridge Elbridge 400 

Abbott &Rodgers' TuUy 

Marvin's ..Jack's Rifts 



500 
400 
450 
800 
500 
300 
690 
GOO 
500 

270 
450 
YOJ 
400 

550 

400 
250 



600 



400 
600 



250 

400 



Belle Isle Belle Isle — - 

Sherwood's Brevverton 

DeWittC. M. A DeWitt 300 

Talbot Fabius 400 

Euclid Euclid ■ 

Navari n o Navarino 140 

Kirkville Kirkville 450 

Goodrich's Otisco 200 

Little Utlca Little Utica 300 

Betts' Ciirners Betls' Corners 

Cole Settlement Fabius 150 

Block do 

Southard's Pompey Center 

Palmer C. M. A Oran 250 

Plain ville Plain ville 400 

Youngs .: Euclid 



Piatt's Plattsburg . . . . 

Rouse's Point Rouse's Point 



CLINTON COUNTY.— 3 FACTORIES. 

.. • — • Smith Dale Peru. 



COLUMBIA COUNTY.— 2 FACTORIES. 



Hudson Hudson . 



Chatham Chatham Center . 



MONROE COUNTY.— 4 FACTORIES. 



Genesee Valley Sonyea . 

Riga Riga ... 



Mendon Mendon . 

Perinton Fairpurt . 



Cold Spring West Farmington 

Flint Creek Flint Creek 



ONTARIO COUNT Y.-3 FACTORIES. 

450 East Bloomfleld East Bloomfleld. 



FULTON COUNT Y.-8 FACTORIES. 



Stuart's Oppenhelm Center 

Fulton do 

Cross Roads Johnstown 

StoUer's do 



Cold Creek Brockett's Bridge • 

Brockett's Bridge do — 

Perth Center Perth Center 200 

Slate Hill Ephratah 600 



534 



Appendix. 



ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY— 16 FACTORIES. 



Name of Factory. Location. No. oj Cows. 

Clin & Smead's C;inton 675 

Southville aoutliville 2u0 

Kichville Rich ville 640 

Jones' do 

Potsdam Potsdam 500 

Hailesboro Gouverneur 600 

Sprai^iie Corners Shingle Creek 600 

Russell Village Russell 500 



Na7ne of Factory. Location. 

Beech Grove Russell 

West Canton Canton 

South Canton Crary's Mills... 

DeKalb DeKal b 

Gouverneur Gouverneur . . 

Pike's Shingle Creek 

West Fowler do 

Hermyn Hermon 



No of Cowsi 
oOt 



45C 
70C 



WYOMING COUNTY.— 29 FACTORIES. 



George Hoye's Attica • — ■ 

Java Village Java Vilhigre 450 

North Java North Java 

Stryker &, Co. 'a do — - 

Empire Java 400 

Arcade C. M. A do — - 

Nile Nile 

Bennington Bennington 400 

Bast Bennington East Bennington 375 

Arcade Arcade 500 

Wells' do 

Gas til e Castile 400 

Gardlant's Attica ■ 

Chapman's Paris Center 

Stephens' Dale 



Tnzier's Johnsonburg - 

Sheldon CM. A Sheldon ■ 

Wyoming Wyoming - 

Chapman's Perry ■ 

Hermitage - 

Orange ville Orangeville 600 

Wilder&Oo.'s do ■ 

Strvkersville Strykersville ■ 

East Coy Pike 250 

Lillibridge do ■ 

Empire East Pike - 

Oatka Gainesville - 

Cowlesville Cowlesville 450 

Java Lake 350 



NIAGARA C0UNTY.-4 FACTORIES. 



Sanborn C. M. Company.. .Sanborn 

Johnson's Creek do ...Johnson's Creek. 



300 Mlrtdleport Middleport , 

J. C. Francis' do 



BROOME COUNTY.-5 FACTORIES. 



Maine Maine 

Hawley ton Hawloy ton. 

Killawog Killawog . . . 



250 Squires Center Kirkwood 

■ Page Brook Valley North Fenton. 



WASHINGTON C0UNTY.-8 FACTORIES. 



North Bend North Granville.. 

North Bend Middle Granville. 

Granville Granville 

Fort Ann Fort Ann 



• South Granville South Granville.. 

250 Middle Gran ville Middle Granville. 

450 Greenwich Greenwich 

• Hawley's Ford Edward 



JEFFERSON COUNTY.— 72 FACTORIES. 



Adams Adams 

Alexander's Henderson ■ 

Antwerp Antwerp 950 

A y ers Waterto wn ■ 

Babcock's Champion 

Barber's Philadelphia 

Bonfoy & Bettinger Mannsville • 

Belleville Belleville 

Bent Antwerp 

B. P. Smith Black River 

Brownville Brownville 400 

Brown Water to wn 

Benjamin & Co.'s Camp's Mills 

Carter Street Stone Mills 

Cascade Rutland 

Champion Village Champion 

Cooper's Evans' Mills..., ■ ■ 

Cold Spring Waterto wn — - 

Cold Spring Belleville • 

Cold Spring Roberts' Corners 

Campbell's South Rutland 150 

Dry Hill Watertown 

Davis' Smith ville 

Eames' Rutland 250 

East Rodman East Rodman ■ 

Earll Carthaj;e 

Ellisville Bllisburgh 

Evans Mills Evans Mills 1,000 

Excelsior Perch River 

Excelsior South Champion 

Farr Pierrepont Manor.... 225 

Foreman's Woodville • — - 

Griswold & Reed Lorraine 

Gardner's Watertown 

Grinnell & Co Pierrepont Manor 300 

Hadsall's Felts Mills ■ — • 



Heath's Adams Center 

Hamlin Rutland 

Harper's Ferry Rutland Center 

Henderson Henderson , 

Howard Stone Mills 

Lorraine Central Ijorraine 

Li merick Dexter 

Leffing well's Henderson 

Mannsville Mannsville 

Maple Grove Lorraine 

M uscallonge Dexter 

Mnzy's Smith ville 

Pillar Point Dexter 

Philadelphia Philadelphia 

Pitkin's Lorraine 

Rodman Rodman 

Rodman Branch Burrville 

Rogers' EUisburgh 

Rogers' Lorraine 

Rutland Valley Watertown 

Sherman's Watertown 

Springer's Redwood 

Smith ville Smithville 

South Champion South Champion 

Springside Dexter 

Sterlingbusli Antwerp 

Tifft's Lorraine 

Timmerman's Orleans Four Corners. 

Warner Adams Center 

Westcott Watertown 

Whitesville East Rodman 

Wicks Antwerp 

Wil son Waterto wn 

Wright Depau ville 

Woodville Woodville 

Worth Worth ville 



27a 
600 



.100 
135 



325 



300 
300 
300 

775 



GENESEE COUNTY.— 11 FACTORIES. 



Batavia Union Batavia 

Batavia C. M. A do 

Byron Byron 

Rich ville Pembroke . 

Linden Linden 

Stafford Stafford . . . 



Darien Center Darien Center. 

Oakfleld Oakflel d 

West Bethany West Bethany. 

East Bethany East Bethany. 

Poster's Batavia 



SCHENECTADY COUNTY.— 2 FACTORIES. 
Mariaville Mariaville Rotterdam 



Appendix. 



535 



Name of Factory. 

Ballston Ballston Center 

Empire South. Gal way . . 



SARATOGA COUNTY.-* FACTORIES 

Location. Ko. of Coivs. Name of Factory. 



Location. 

Galway Galway . . . 

Charltuu ■. Charlton . 



No. of Cown. 



ORANGE COUNTY.-43 FACTORIES. 



Circlevllle 400 

Coilaburgh 225 

Kockville Mlddletown 20J 

Unionville 250 

Walkill Association 375 

D. Mulloclc's Middletown 250 

Orange Co. AI. A Michigan 550 

do do Chester 325 

Gouge & Co Hamptonburgh 600 

Bates & Co do 250 

Gouije & Youngs' Florida 400 

T.J. Taylor's do 175 

Carpenter Howell Amity 415 

do Warwick 350 

Sanford & Smith do 300 

H. Milburn do 250 

T. Durhind do 150 

Brown, Bailey & Co Edenville 400 

Foster Clark's Wiokiiam's Pond 350 

W. H. Clark & Co Minisink 300 

Barton Spring ...Monroe 100 

Parlor Bl ooming Grove 



Wood's Chester 200 

Kidd's Walden 

J. F. Vail & Co • 450 

Brown, Lane & Co 250 

Wawanda 375 

J. B. Halsey & Co 300 

E. Bull's Chester 150 

Bankers Brother's do 200 

F.Davis' do 225 

P. Holbert's Middletown 275 

Mapes & Co do 425 

James Hulse do 250 

Wm.Mead&Co do 250 

Christee & Co Unionville 300 

O. F.Green Greenville 300 

H. Rearaey do 125 

Finchville Otisville 375 

J. A.Wood Slate Hill 200 

Howell & Co Monroe 400 

Sugiir Loaf Sugar Loaf 550 

Union Cond'sed Milk Co..NewMilford 



GREENE COUNTY.— 4 FACTORIES. 



Towner's Jewett. 

Hunter'3 Creamery Jewett. 



Smith's Ashland. 

Kirkland Durham. 



ALLEGANY COUNTY.-44 FACTORIES. 



Simpson's New Hudson ( 

Reservoir Seymour ( 

Rushf ord Rush ford 1,( 

Forsythe's Whitesville ! 

S. Sherman & Co Nile : 

Richburg Rich burg. . , : 

Curtis' do - 

D. T. Burdick's Alfred ■ 

Greene's do - 

Friendship Friendship ■ 

Center ville Centerville • 

Ackerley's Rushf ord i 

Barns' Fill more ' 

Andover Andover 

Black Creek BlackCreek 

Oramel Oramel 

Niel 

Wellsville Wellsville I 

Lyndon Cuba ' 

Pettibone's Alfred - 

Dodge's Creek Portville - 

Jackson's Belmont - 



Morley 's Whitney's Crossing. . 

Flanagan 's Cole Creek . 

Crandall's Dodge's Corners 

Belvidere Belvidere 

Rice's do 

Granger Granger 

Little Genesee Little Genesee 

Carr Valley Almond 

A. Congdon's West Clarksville 

Babbit's Hume 

Philips' Creek Philips Creek 

Vandermarsh Scio 

R. Smith's Cuba 350 

West Almond West Almond 

G. West's Alfred Center • • 

J. Wilcox's Wirt Center 150 

Wiscoy Wiscoy 200 

Genesee Little Genesee 120 

Elm Valley Andover 150 

Angelica Angelica 

Clean Olean 350 

McHenry Valley Alfred Center 300 



400 
250 
350 
450 

275 



YATES COUNTY.— 1 FACTORY. 

Italy Hollow C. M. A Italy Hollow 

ERIE COUNTY.-54 FACTORIES. 



Stickney's Collins 1,100 

W. G. Huntington Pontiac 800 

North Concord Concord 

First Collins 800 

Collins Center Collins Center 1,100 

Brant Center Brant 550 

Marshfleld Collins Center 1,100 



Morton's Corners Morton's Corners. 

Richmond & Co.'s Sardinia 

Glenwood Glen wood 

Dick & Co.'s Willink 

North Collins Shirley 

Kirby's Shirley 

Young's Alden 

Wheelock's 

Gowanda Gowanda 

Staffin's Collins 

W. Smith's — 

Ballard's 

He nl er Gran d Islan d 

Cotesworth Grand Island. 

North Boston 

Boston Center 

Golden Colden 

Marilla Mnrilla 

Kimball's LancastPr 

Cheese M. A Spring Brook. 



600 
500 
400 
350 



Boston Boston 400 

Concord Center Woodward's Hollow.. 500 

Wales Wales 450 

Paxton's Eden 600 

Sisson 's Shirley 600 

North Evans.- North Evans 500 

Angola Angola 360 

Brant Collins 400 

Springville Springville 1,200 

Blakelev's East Aurora 

Jackson's East Hamburg 300 

Hamburg Hamburg 300 

North Evans North Evans 250 

East Evans East Evans 300 

Eden Corners Eden Corners 350 

North Concord North Concord 600 

Sardinia Valley Sardinia Valley 450 

Newton Sardinia 250 

Hosmer's do 

WalesCenter Wales Center 400 

Puller's do — - 

South Wales Wales 450 

Elma do 300 

Burroughs&Co do 

Francis 

Farrington's Holland • 

Moulton's Protection 



Speedsville , 



TIOGA COUNTY.— 2 FACTORIES. 
.Speedsville Jenksville 



.Jenksville. 



536 



Appendix. 



HERKIMER COUNTY.— 69 FACTORIES. 



Name, of Factory. Location. 

Herkimer Co. Union Little Falls. 



Manheim Center do 

Manheim Turn do 

Newville C. M. A do 

Rice, Broat & Co.'s do 

G.W.Davis do 

Cold Spring do 

Top Notch do 

Van Allen's do 

Fairfield Association Fairfield 

Old Fairfield do 

North Fairfield do 

Eatonville Eaton villa 

IjOcustGrove do 

Mohawk Valley East Schuyler 

Richardson's do 

Budlong's West Schuyler. . . 

Warren's Warren . . . 

Fort Herkimer Fort Herkimer... 

Bellinger's do 

Beckwith 's Cedarville 

Cold Soring do 

Stewart's do 

Howard's do 

Cedarville do 

Smith's Fran Uf ort 

A.G.Norton's do 

Frankfort Center do 

Russell's Russell's Hill 

Wetmore do 

D. Hawn's Stark ville 

Snell's Russia 

Nash's Frankfort Center 

Rider's Cedar Lake 

Stuart's Cedarville 



Ko. of Coivs. Name of Factory. Location. Ko. of Cows. 

'i'OO Richardson's West Schuyler... 

600 Skinner's South Columbia " 

500 Kling's Paine's Hollow 

860 Middleville Middleville 750 

900 Northrup's Litchfield " 300 

600 Kinney's do " goo 

-^ Walrath North Litchfield;:!'." 300 

450 Van HornsviUe Van Hornsville 

Young's do 

- — Lackey's West Winfleld 

900 H.C.Brown's do 

, 600 Wadsworth's do 

600 W. Palmer's do 

150 Edick's Mohawk 

450 Mort's (Jo 

360 J. Clark's Winfleld 

300 B. Bartlett's do 

400 North Winfleld North Winfleld 

400 Moon's Russia. 

400 Poliind Cheddar Poland 

300 Herkimer Herkimer 

— Herkimer Union do 

— G.W.Pine's do 

— Newport Newport 

300 Morey's do 

800 Cook, Ives & Co.'s Salisbury 

— L. H. Carr's do 

— W. Peck's do 

— Old Salisbury do 

— Avery & Ives' Salisbury Center 

300 Norway Association Norway 

BOO J.D.Ives' do .'.■ 

— Columbia Center Columbia Center 

— J. Russell's Graefenberg 




CAYUGA C0UNTY.-8 FACTORIES. 



Throopsville C. M. A Auburn 

Moravia Moravia 

Sennett Sennett 

Carpenter's New Hope. 



450 Ira Ira 

250 Lincoln's Conquest Center.' 

400 Port Byron C. M. Co.'s. ...Port Byron 

Meridian Meridian 



OTSEGO COUNTY.— 46 FACTORIES. 



Wykoffs Richfield Springs 500 

Bush's do 

E. D.Lamb's Unadilla Forks ,. 350 

Center Brook Otsego 200 

Stocker & Fox's Bast Springfield 600 

easier & Andrews Springfield Center 450 

Hartwick Hartwick , 20O 

Pitt Cushman's Edmeston Center 200 

Col. Gardner's Burlington Flats 150 

Ed. Gardner's do 150 

Benj. Smith's Spooner's Corners 400 

Brockway's Richfield , 400 

Smith & Wilber West Exeter 400 

Kly Creek Fly Creek 200 

Park's Burlington Green 350 

Parley Phillips' Unadilla Forks 200 

Wm. L. Brown's do 200 

Clark's Sch uyler's Lake 200 

Edmeston Center Edmeston Center 750 

Warren Chase's West Edmeston 250 

Joseph King's Burlington Green 200 

George Clark's Hyde Park 300 

Nearing & Co.'s Butternuts 



Russell Bower's Exeter 

Perkin's do 

Hind's Cooperstown , 

Hoxie's (Jo 

Hoxie's Unadilla Forks.'"! 

R. L. Warren's East Springfield... 

West Burlington West Burlington 

Parker's South Edmeston. . 

Pope's do 

L. N. Brown's West Edmeston... 

Ed. Loomis' Richfield 

L. O. Vebber's Exeter Center 

H. & S. Smith's West Exeter 

J.H.Pratt's do 

Lyman Johnson Burlington Flats.. 

Colman's do 

Newel N.Talbot's do 

Hartwick Union Cooperstown 

Chamberlai n's Richfield Springs. 

Cherry Valley Cherry Vallev 

Tuttle's South Edmeston . . 

Rider's Schuyler's Lake.. 

Baker's do 



400 
200 



300 



CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY.— 12 FACTORIES. 



Hamlet Hamlet 1,100 

J. E. Robertson's Busti 660 

Clear Spring Fredonia 700 

Burnham's Sinclairville 1,049 

J. S. Hulbert's Forrestville 400 

Villanova Vill anova 400 



Brainard's Hamlet 650 

Coon's (3) Mina 1,250 

do Sherman 457 

Canadawa Arkwright 680 

Gerry Gerry 500 

Cassadaga Cassadaga 400 



SCHOHARIE COUNTY.— 9 FACTORIES. 



Sharon Center Sharon Center. 

Seward Valley Seward 

Hindsville Hindsville 

Gardnersville Gardnersville . 

Cobleskill Cobleskill 



250 Argusville Argusville .. 

200 Carlisle Carlisle 

200 Barneyville Barneyville. 

Esperance Esperance .. 



RENSSELAER COUNTY.— 1 FACTORY, 
Matteson's South Berlin 

TOMPKINS COUNTY.— 9 FACTORIES. 



Dryden Union Etna 

Groton Groton Hollow. 

Ellis Hollow Ithii ca 

Arnold's Ithaca 

McLean Association McLean 



600 
500 



700 



Freeville Union Freeville 

Slaterviile Slaterville 

Peru Peru ville 

Ridgway Creamery Caroline Depot. 



600 
200 



700 



Appendix. 537 



CATTARAUGUS COUNT y.-55 FACTORIES. 

Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Coivs. 

Welch's Diiytoii Faimersville Farmersville 400 

Perrysburgh Perrysburgh 550 Cook & Brotliers do 

Ticknor's Versailles 5U0 Napaer do 

Slab City Slab City J. K. Button's do 

Ijeon Center Leon Center Ischua Ischua ,. 

Randolph Randolph 200 Portvilie Portville - — 

First Collins Uowanda TOO Clean Clean 

Stebbin's Cattaraugus • Hinsdale Hinsdale ■ 

Waverly Waverly Cady 's Franklin ville • • 

Safford Kast Otto Union ElUcottville 600 

Union do McMahon's do 

Tlffts' do 400 Meadow Valley do 

Crump's do ■ Little Valley Little Valley 

Ashford Ashford 600 Great Valley Great Valley 

Westville Westville Merrilly's Napuli 

West Ashford Ashford Hollow Lyndon Lyndon 

Machias Corners Machias Corners Cadiz C:idiz 850 

Wood worth's Yorkshire 450 New Ashford New A shf ord 400 

Maple Ridge Falrview 660 Yorkshire Center Yorkshire Center 500 

Gowanda Gowanda 550 New Albion 600 

Dwight's do Jenk's Gowanda 1,000 

Allen's Eddyville 350 Pigeon Valley 369 

Maple Grove ElUcottville 200 West Valley West Valley 400 

East Ashford East Ashford 550 B:iUard 400 

Follett's Machals 400 Bigelow's Ashford 

Lewis & Haskell's Sandusky -- — Vedder's Corners do 

Elton Elton 400 Gamps Ashford Hollow 

Kawson Rawson 

CHEMUNG C0UNTY.-3 FACTORIES. 

Bunnell & Horton's Millport 750 Van Duzer & Son's Horseheads 

Rundle's Horseheads 

OTTIO.-IOS in^CTORIES. 

GEAUGA COUNTY.— 26 FACTORIES. 

Rocky Dell Bissell's 250 Colton & Co Nelson 

Andrews' do 800 Spring Brook Welshfleld 300 

Bartlett's Chester Cross Roads.. 800 Giove do 300 

Bartlett's Muluerry Corners 300 Munson's Fowler's 400 

Hood's Auburn 500 Pope's Welshfleld 500 

Odell's do 600 Randall's Burton . 700 

Smith's Ford 600 Hall's Claridon 400 

Freeman's South Newbury 500 Armstrong's East Claridon 700 

Hall's Fowler's Mills 600 Smith & Co. 's Parkman 600 

Murray's Chardon 800 Armstrong's Huntsbu rgh 800 

Randall's Chardon 700 Randall's Montville 800 

Pope's Welshfleld 500 Murray's do 500 

Russell 500 Smith's Thompson 500 

PORTAGE COUNTY.— 13 FACTORIES. 

B. B. Higley Windham H.F.Hudson Ravenna 

Horr & Risden Shalersville Beman Spring Ravenna 250 

H. S. Johnson Garrettsville Hinkley's Mantua 

Hurd & Bro Aurora Burrows Freedom 

Harmons & Root Aurora — — Aurora Grove Aurora 500 

T. C. Bradley Mantua Anderson's Ravenna 300 

I. C. Scram Ravenna 

ASHTABULA COUNTY.— 12 FACTORIES. 

S. E. &H. N. Carter Windsor 500 J. Pel ton's Wayne • 

Lattlmer's .'Vew Lyme Wire's Austinburgh 

Osborn's Morgan Weldon & Brown Conneant 400 

G. C. Dolph West Andover Pierce's Eagleville ■ 

Austinburgh Austinburgh Harrington & Randall Morgan 

Morley Bros Andover Alderney New Lyme 

TRUMBULL COUNTV.-IS FACTORIES. 

J. M. Trew Farmington Baldwin's Fowler 

B. H. Peabody Kinsman Cortland Bazetta 

Cold Spring do Raymond's Mesopotamia 

Caldwell & Lewis West Farmington Cowdery & Craft's Bazetta 

Farmington Center Farmington Center... Sager & House Bristolville 

E. C. Cox Mesopotamia Harshman & McConnell's.Southlngton 

do North Bloomfleld 

HENRY COUNTY.-l FACTORY. 
Ridgeville Ridgeville Corners... 

FULTON COUNTY.— 1 FACTORY. 
Royalton Royalton 

LORAIN COUNTY.-S FACTORIES. 



Camden Cheese Co Kipton Snow's Huntington.. 

Mussey & Viets Elyria G. H. Van Wagnen & Co.. North Eaton. 

Horr & Warner Huntington Corning & Hanee Grafton 

Magraugh & Whitlock Wellington Penfield Wellington .. 



538 



Appendix. 



LAKE C0UNTY.-5 FACTORIES. 

Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cows. 

S. E. Ctirter Leroy, Paiitesv'le P.O. Hitts Willoughby 300 

H. N. Carter Perry Bartlett, & McKee South Kirtland 

K. Freeiuan & Co Madison • 



MEDINA C0UNTY.-6 FACTORIES. 



McDowell Bros Medina 

hello ws Chatham . 

Benedict & Brooker liitchtield . 



• — • Crane & Co Sharon , 

- — Colbetzes & Co Spencer 

Chatham Chatham Center. 



SUMMIT COUNTY. -8 FACTORIES. 



Twinsbnrg Cheese Ass'n. .Twinsburg. 

Wm. Wilcox Twinshurg. 

S. Straight & Co Twinsburg. 

do Hudson 



Richfield West Richfield . 

S. Straight «& Co Streetsboro 

Oak Hill Peninsula 

M. D. Call Hudson 



ASHLAND C0UNTY.-2 FACTORIES. 
Drake, Eaton & Co. 's Sullivan Clark & Bailey Sullivan. 



HURON COUNTY.— 3 FACTORIES. 



Haviland & Conant Greenwich... 

J. W. Jenne New London. 



Wakeman Cheese Co Wakeman. 



A. J. Lockuvood Bedford 

J. Q. Lander Solon . . . 



CUYAHOGA COUNTY.— 3 FACTORIES. 

Wyatt's Brecksville . 



ILJL,INOIS.-46 FACTORIES. 



Hainesville Haines ville. Lake Co. 

Burchard's Sumner, Ivank'ee Co. . 

Patterson & Mix Momence, do 

Wm. Keeiiey's Mantino, do 

W. C. Kicliards Momence, do 

W. A. Clark's Sherburnv'le, do 

Wanzer & Co Herman, Kane Co 

R. R. Stone's Richmond, McH. Co.. 

K.R.Stone's Spring Grove, do 

Thompson & Abbott Greenwood, do 

Huntley Grove Huntley, do 

Marengo Marengo, do 

Greenwood Woodstock, do 

Marsh & Jackson Union, do 

Boies ., Kingston, DeKalb Co. 

Sugar Grove Aurora 

I )unton Dun ton 

Kennicott do 

Cameron do 

Perry do 

Williams' do 

Gould & Hammond's Hanover 

Tuttle's Lodi 



Gould & Hammond's Elgin 

Barber & Co Polo 

Albro «& Co Wayne 

Win slow Shirland 

Kilbor's Richmond 

Buckland's Ring wood 

Jones' Hebron 

Conn's do 

Woodstock Woodstock, McH. Co. 

Riley Riley, do 

Buena Vista Huntley, do 

S|)ring Grove Richmond, do 

G;irden Prairie Garden Prairie 

Mead's Hebron 

SI ilk Condensing Co Elgin 

Rockton Rock ton 

Stuart Bros Hebron, McHenry Co. 

Oneida Rockf ord 

Belvidere Belvidere, Boone Co.. 

Hal e Hale, Ogle Co 

AVanzer's Hanover 

do .. Elgin 

Cameron Northfleld 



425 

300 
600 
400 



350 
3t0 



400 
500 



KEISTTXJCKY.-S I^-A.C'JL'ORIES. 



Chileshurg Chilesburg, Fay'te Co. 

Clark Winchester, Clark Co. 

Shelby City Shelby City 



300 
300 



Versailles Versailles, W'df'd Co. 200 

Madison County C. M. A.. Richmond 



M:i]srN-ii:sox.A..-4 ih^ctories. 



Anderson Mower City. 

Wells Wells 



Star Rochester. 

Owatonna Owatonna. 



^wiscoisrsiisr.— 34 e^ctories. 



C. H. Wilder's Evansville, Rock Co.. 400 

Springvale Nanaupa 

Eldredge Af ton 200 

Elkhorn Blkhorn 200 

Rosondale Rosendale 600 

Hazen's Ladoga 459 

Sparta Sparta 200 

Favil's Lake Mills, Jeff. Co . . . • 

Barrett's Burnett Station 

Coolidge Windsor, Dane Co • 

Waterville Waterville, Wauk. Co. 

Boynton's Wuu pun 

Howard's do • 

Johnson's do 

Downey's do 

Carpenter's Kenosha 

Holt's do 



Job n son's Kenosha 

Long's do 

Pierce & Simmons do 

Truesdell's do 

White's do 

Fort Atkinson Fort Atkinson 

Spring Mills Somers 

Bullock's Rockton 

Cold Spring Whitewater 

Coburn's do 

Drake's Lake Mills 

Gilbert & Co.'s Hazel Green , 

Tappan's Morrison 

Wilbur & Co.'s Wilmot 

Strong & Co.'s Oakfield , 

Cochran's Trenton, Dodge Co. 

Reigart & Ross Beloit 



Appendix. 



539 



MiT^SSA-CHUSETTS.— S6 in^VCXORIKS- 



Name of Factory. luocation. 

Worcester Co Wairen 

Union Hard wick 

New Braintree New Brain tree.. 

Barre Central Clieese Co..Barre Center 

Burre Cheese Co Barre 

Southwest do 

Hard wick Center Hard wick 

Boise's Blandf ord 

William.stown Williams town . . 

West Brookfleld West Brookfield 

Ijanesbciro' Ijanesboro' 

North Marlboro' North Marlboro' 

Lenox Lenox 



No. of Cows. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cotvs. 
500 New Lenox Lenox 

Cheshire Cheshire 

543 Petersham Cheese Co Petersham 

• Clieshlre do South Adams 

375 Westboro' do Westboro' 

125 Lewis Milk Condensing... West Brookfleld 

500 Coy's Hill Cheese Co Warren 300 

South Wiliiamatown South WUllamstown.. 

Walker's Greenwich • ■ 

Dana C. M. C Dana 

Putnam's Belchertown 

Slater's TyrinKham 

Greylock South Adams 



■verm:o:nt.-32 e"^C'jl'OK,iigs. 



East Berkshire East Berkshire 

Enosburgh Factory Co Enosburgh 

North Euosburgh North Knoslmrgh. 

East Franklin East Franklin 

Middleto wn Middle town 

Kose West Rupert 

West Pawlet .West Pawlet 

Hill Middletown 

West Tinmouth West Tinmouth... 

Norton's Wells 

Valentine's Tinmouth 

Ot»er Creek Center Kutland ... 

Billing's Kutland 

Slieldon's West Rutland 

Wickham's Pawlet 

Camp's Stowe 



400 
600 
400 



G25 
475 
100 



125 
200 



Missisquoi North Sheldon. 

Gleason's Shrewsbury 

Mason's Ricliniond 

Valley Hinesburg 

East Poultney East Poultney.. 

WalUngf ord Wallingford .. . . 

Williams' Danby 

Rutland Rutland 

West Orwell Orwell 

East Orwell do 

Hosf ord's Charlotte 

Milron Milton 

Milton Falls Milton Falls .... 

Ferrisburgh Ferrisburgh 

New Haven New Haven 

Shoreham Shoreham 



650 

300 



450 
350 
350 



]MiCH:i&Aisr.— S2 fj^^ctokies. 



St. Clair St. Clair 

Fairflel d Fairfield 

Horton's Adrian 

Hoad ley 's Oakf ord 

Saunders' Trenton 

Smith's Augusta 

White's Ceresco 

Maple Grove Farraington. 

Canton Canton 

Beal's Rollin 

Clayton Clayton 



450 

700 



600 
400 



Spring Brook Farmington 400 

Gilt Edge do 400 

Ionia Ionia 

Reading Reading 450 

Fowler & Co. 's do 

Adrian C. M. Co Adrian 

Ames' Hudson 

Sawin's Mattison 

Utlca Utica 

Welton's North Adams 

Hillsdale Hillsdale 



Holston . 



.Saltville, Smith Co.... 



N^ORTJI C^T?,OLI]Sr^.-l FACTORY. 

Elk Mountain Asheville, Bunc'e Co. 230 

TEI^JSTESSEE.— 1 EA.CTORY. 
Stratton's Crossville, Cumb'd Co. 

KA.1S"SA.S.— 1 IHA^CTORY. 
Americus Americus 



Eagle Cheese Co. 



COlMlSrECTICXJT.-l FACTORY. 

.North Colebrooke 



r>EisriN-SYiL."VA.isriA.-i4 factories. 



Springville Springville, Susq. Co.. 

Bridgewater Bridgewater, do 

Gage do do .. 

Worth's Marshallton. Ch'tr Co. 

Damascus Creamery Damnscus, Wayne Co. 

Woodcock First Premium.Woodcock, Crawf 'd Co 
Woodcock Boro' Cream'y. Woodcock Boro' do 



158 Venango Venango, Crawf d Co. 

200 Keystone N.Bichmond, do . 

80 Cambridge Rockdale, do . 

Ellis & Smith's Waterford, Erie Co... 

New Milf ord Creamery New Milford, Susq. Co 200 

Spring Hill Spring Hill, Bnid. Co. 150 

Earl's Carthage 360 



10A^A.-'7 FACTORIES. 



Smith's Mason City 

Hickling's do 

Wyoming Wyoming, Jones Co , 

Clear Lake Clear Lake , 



Strawberry Point Fayette Co 

Kidder's Enworth, Dubuque Co 

Pierce's Belmond 



540 



Appendix. 



Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cotvs. Name of Factory. Location. No. of Cotvs 
L. B. Merrill's Merrillsville Brookman's Crown Point. . . . .' - 



Smith & Son's Norwich, Ox, 

Galloway's IngersoU, 

Josiah Cfollins Mount Elgin 

Moyers' West Zorra 

Adams' Nissouri, 

Wade's Cobourg 

James Harris Ingersoll, 

do Branch do 

H. Farrington's Norwich, 

do Branch... do 

Chas. Banbury's St. Mnry's 

Harris & Adams Mt. Elgin 

Ballard's N<irwichville. 

Ballantyne's Sebringville 

Ontario N urwich, 

Pioneer. do 

People's do 

E. Nissouri Ingersoll 



^D^ 


"^^ 






. Co., Ont. 


4m 


do 


l.-iO 


do 


IS-MI 


do 


KKI 


do 


VM 


do 


4.50 


do 


4(HI 


do 


2(111 


do 


■Ml) 


do 


aid 


do 


»i(l 


do 


2,T(I 


,do 


■M) 


do 


4(10 


do 


■M) 


do 


h.%) 


do 





do 






Lossing's Durham, Prov. Ont 

Scott's Lobo, do 

Ream's Oxford, do 

podge's do do 

Suverthorn's do do 

Tho. Abram's Norwich, do 

G. Dunkin's do do 

Wm. Bailey's do do 

Andrew Pickert Lowville, do 

Richard Carter Brampton, do 

Wilmot's Milton, do 

CambeD's do do 

I^a wson's Salf ord, do 

I>egeer"s Queensville, do 

Pearce's Tyrconnell, do 

Middlesex Bowood. do 

Smith & Cochrane's Compton, Pr. Quebec" 



200 
200 
70 
275 
200 
175 
150 
175 
250 
200 
450 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Abortion 108 

Absorbing liquid manure with sawdust 83 

Acid, Development of in clieese makinfr 4i3 

Acidity in cream, Influence of in churning 501 

Acids, Advantages of over rennet 359 

— for coagulating milk over rennet 359 

— Amount of required 353 

— for coagulating milk 358 

Agitator, Curd 407 

— for stirring milk 453 

Albumen 167 

— in milk 322 

Alderney bull 116 

Alderneys as butter cows 115 

— or Jerseys 114 

Allgauer and Holland cows compared with other 

breed s 176-177 

American cheese 311 

— — abroad. Appearance and comparative 

merits of 276 

— — Composition of 311 

— and Cheddar processes compared 430 

— dairy belt 7 

Ammoniacal salts in cheese 428 

Analysis of beets and turnips 98 

— — leeuminous and other plants— Boussingault 85 

— — milk and wliey in cheese making 336 

— — poison cheese, Voel oker 474 

— — skim milk and whey in skim cheese making 337 

— — whey 319 

— at three periods of manufacture 320 

Annatto, Cheese spoiled by bad 327 

— Description of 438 

— Dry extract of or annattoine lu. ^uiter. 499 

— Method of preparing 439 

— Nicholls' 279 

— — Knglish for butter 499 

— Preparing at the Brockett Bridge Factory.... 439 
A nnattoine 439 

— Caldwell's analysis 440 

— Receipt for cutting 440 

Apparatus, Factory, Cost of 372 

Appliances, Factory, Convenient 418 

Ashes 66 

— for eradicating mosses 66 

Associated dairies 11 

— dairying 362 

— — Rise and progress of 213 

Austin's agitator, Description of 454 

Average product of cows 21 

Ayrshires 113 

— and Alderney, Crossing 115 

— Crossing common stoclt with 114 

Bad flavored cheese ; its cause 472 

Bandages, boxes, &c 280 

Bandaging machine 421 

Barley, Composition of lOi 

Barn, Absorbing the liquid manures in 36 

— A convenient dairy 32 

— An excellent dairy 33 

— Another style of 36 

— Basement for roots 33 

— Clark's dairy 617-519 

— Drive floors and bays 33 

— Drive-way near the peak 33 

— Fodder thrown downwards 33 

— horse stable and carriage house 33 

— Manure sink 34 

— — cellars under 32 

— Meadow Brook Dairy, Description of 34 

— Klevationof 34 

— Ground plan 35 

— Moderndairv 31 

— Stables for dairy 32 

— Truesdale's, The manure cellar 33 

— ventilators...., 34 



PAGE. 
Barn with four rows of stables 39 

— without manure cellar 36 

Barns, Dairy 31 

— for cutting and steaming fodder 36 

— Threshing 37 

— Truesdale's, Feeding the cows 38 

— — Preparing the teed 37 

Beef and cheese, Relative cost of producing 12 

Beets, American improved imperial sugar 96 

— Cost of raising 98 

— Distance between rows 97 

— Harvesting 9" 

— Plants in a row 97 

— Preparation of soil for , 96 

— Sin«linK and hoeing 97 

— Time of sowing 97 

Blue grass 73 

Boiler and engine, Another new 385 

— Vertical 385 

— — Jones & Faulkner's 382 

— steam generator, Clark's ,3S5 

Bone manure 90 

Bones to grass lands. Application of 56 

— How to dissolve 65 

Boxing cbeese for market 479 

Branch factories 377 

Breaking the curds 441 

Breeding from healthy animals 108 

— Excessive use of the male 108 

— stock. Bad habits inherited in 119 

— Tainting of the mother's blood. Examples of. 109 

— What is to be considered 110 

Buckwheat, Composition of 104 

Bulls from good milkingfamilies. Importance of 

thoroughbred 120 

Butter, Eaters of, no such 10 

— and cheese. Equalizing the supply of 11 

— What constitutes good 46 

— Cellars 496 

— Character of good 483 

— Color and texture of 485 

— colored with carrots 499 

— Coloring 499 

— Composition of 489-500 

— factory. Plan of Rockville 252 

— factories. Expense and profits 240 

— — System of organizing 246 

— — The Orange Co 236 

— — Water pools for 494 

— firkins, Oak 512 

— —White oak 495 

— Freeing from buttermilk 484 

— grasses of Orange Co 242 

— Hairs in 511 

— How to keep the salt for 511 

— work 509 

— Influence of washing 493 

— in hard water districts 236 

— its keeping qualities 483 

— Losino' the aroma of 495 

— made in New York in 1864 19 

— making — American system 493 

— — at Orange Co. factories 252 

— the Queen's dairy 481 

— — Leading principles for 482 

— — milk room for farm dairies 484 

— — Philosopbyof 500 

— — Scotch method 498 

— — Taints in 503 

— manufacture 481 

— — Modern method of managing milk 484 

— marketing. The Captain's 246 

— Ovor-working and upoiling the grain 508 

— package and packing 511 

— — Elmer's 513 

— packages. Kind of wood for 512 



542 



Index. 



\iiA 



PAGE. 



Butter packages— Preparing for use : 513 

— Faclcingof 495 

— pail and firkins 254 

— — Philadelphia, description of .....'. 491 

— — Westcott's oak .'.'.. 513 

— Percentage consumed as food .".. 20 

— — manufactured, table for '."'. 22 

— Philadelphia, Making of ! 4H0 

— Price of in London ..'. 10 

— Production of in U. S. and Territories". ". .... '. '. '. 10 

— Salt— its action 5O8 

— The grain of .....' '. 508 

— Washing ........'. 249 

— Whey, Cold process 515 

— —Hot process ...'.! 514 

— worker "" 509 

— — Corbin's 510 

— — Orange county 253 

— Working V.V."" 250 

Buttermilk 497 

— Composition of '. 500 

Calves, Importance of freely handlVng " ". 120 

— How to skin ' 140 

— Raising of .■.■■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■ 147 

— Raising, on the soiling principle 143 

— stomach, The fourth for rennet 130 

— When to be deaconed im 

Can handles. Milk nti 

Cans, Factory milk oq) 

Cardingcowa ??n 

Carrots, Coloring butter with.'.".".'.' 400 

Caserne J^P 

— shells. Influence of.' ."."." .'.'.'." isq 

— Solubilityof *|^7 

_'t m n^rf'?;,?"'' "^ 'I o f com Parati ve equi'vaients ." ." " ." 105 

— Importance of acclimating 107 

Cajiseof floating curds 2^1 

Cellars, Manure 3? 

— under cheese iactori"es]."!!.'!!! 4ja 

Census, Are the figures correct 17 

— Inaccuracy of returus 21 

— report of 1870 Are the figures 'correct.'.".'.";.".":.".' 17 

L-entritugal machine for cheese making 346 

certificate of stock— Form for cheese factory 

company ^ m-, 

Cheddar cheese— its style..'. 97^ 

— — making ;;; o~\ 

— process, Principles of 4Si 

Cheese, American '.'.'..'.'. 311 

— — abroad— Appearance and riierits...'.'.'.'.'.' 276 

~ Comparative merits of ' 27G 

— — exports in 1848, '49. '50 214 

~ '^'^oei'"'''®'' exports for ten years, from is'a's't'o" 

looS 956 

— factories, List of !!."."."."!"."."53i-540 

— Home consumption of. 9 

— — — made in United States in 1869..".".!".".".".""! 18 

— — beef, Relative cost of producing... p 
~ o?Piir'^'f"^ and making single Gloster cheese'.! 265 

— associations— Old districts affected 234 

— bad from imperfect salting "",328 

— bandages, boxes, &c '" ' ^'^ 

— Cannon ball 4?n 

— certificate of sale. qc^ 

— Cheshire of excellent 'qual'i't'y.'"! 344 

— oairyin g as a specialty— Its history ! '. 213 

— defects in American, bad flavor, &c .' 230 

— districts of England.... o^a 

— dressing room 



295 



— English, improvement "iii""k"eepi"ng,""c"h"ee"s'e 

room, &e ^y^^'e., i^ui-ebe 

— - - inquality .'.".".'.';.'.'.'.'.'."."."."." 994 

— Errors m keeping.... oqa 

— Experiments at Froces'ter Court.".""." 1% 

— — Voelcker's §00 

— ^''fnl8«)*'''6l^^®'^'^°'"'^'f ''0^1862 "to "1866:."^^ 284 

— Extra rich, Arialys'i's'of!!!!'.'.'.'. lYn 

— - fine. Process for making i! .';.'.".' .' 457-4fi' 

— factory owned and managed by one person" sfi? 

— =s^stim7n'N^«^'i^'''^^"l''««"'^tToSsfor :•- 366 

^1863 ''^^'^ capital invested in 

— factories, Advanta"ges"(3f"a cellar under!." m 

— — Another form of organizing.... sfi^ 
^New'Yorlf.^f.**^'* ''"'^ Persons emprdyed'i'n 

~ ~ inaugurated 'by j'esse" Wi'liiams" '.'.'.'. In 

— — Notice to patrons, form for.. . qRi 

— — Number built in 16 years 21fi 

— — Regulations for oi? 

— factories-Rules for organizing. .".■.■.■".' qm 

— —The early " 'A2i 

— Fancy f:ictory j^ 

— Flavor of, English standard" .".■.".".■."■.■.".".'.■.' ;;;;;::: i26 

— from 't'ainted'mll'k! !!;.■;;;.".■ .'.■; Ik? 

— Gloucestershire ,"."!.'.' Sr! 



Cheese, Grafted *4fiT 

— Hard, dry— How to improve!!!!!!!!!!!! i?q 

— hoop followers Jot 

— — and utensils, English '.'.'.!!".!!!!!!!!!! 293 

hoops.. .„, 

— how afi^ected by fungus im 

— Keeping qualities 790 

— madetromwhey o|? 

— — Ijy centrifugal machine, Ana"l"y"8i"s""df! 349 

— makers. Salary of flrst-class... iqq 

— making, acids for 358" 35? 

American and Cheddar processe"seom'pared: '430 

— — at Avery & Ives' factory 4fiK 

— — Coarse curds process iS 

— — Cutting the curds.. JVn 

— — Fish's views on heat...! 444 

from a small quantity of milk.'Process!!!!! 469 

~ — — — — number of cows 4fi6 

— -Machinery ^qS 

— — Norway factory !!!!! JSq 

— — paying for by the Dound !!!! 365 

— — Practical mistakes' in sja 

— — Process where milk is sour...! 459' 

— — lemperatureforskiramed milk...'.'. 448 

— whole milk 440 

— — under difficulties !.'! 453 

— — use of sour whey 437 

~ — beat in !!.'.'!!!!!!!!!!!! 442 

— manufacture 436 

— — cost in families !!!!!!!!'!! 220 

— — English reduction of labor in. .'.".'. 289 

~ — of, from small quantities of milk 436 

— skimmed 495 

— market at Chippenham om 

— — The English "; 282 

— Mellow appearance of 427 

— Not ripening at too low temperat'iire'.!!!!!!!!!! 330 

— of Somerset 260 

— partially skimmed, Analysis'of!!!!!!!!!! 341 

— per centiige. Manufacture table for "" 22 

— — consumed as food '"20 

— Practical faults in making ... 315 

— press, A primitive aro 

— —English 2% 

— — Frazer'sgang !!!!!!!""! 403 

— — log and how made 46a 

— —screws m^ 

— presses. Factory 400 

— — Herkimer Co., Description 'of!!!!.'!! 399 

— Proper ripening of ' " 427 

— Proportion of moisture in.... 497 

— rack and setter 457 

— Rectangular 41/1 

— - Bandaging !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 416 

— — Boxing Jj» 

— — Curb and press for '.'.'..'. 41a 

— — Description of making 412 

— — press. Cloths for Ijg 

— — Saving in boxes, and down weights.'.'.'.".".".""' 414 

— — ■. hoops and screws 415 

— Ripening of-How afl-eoted by manufacture'!! 448 

— rooms Hot water pipes for heating 331 

— sales. Blank for ^ ms 

— Salting in the whey ?oq 

— Salty taste of 4.I0 

— selling at factories m? 

— shipments from New i'oric and pr'i'c'es'in Lon- 
don in 1866 and 1867 fSR 

— Size of otS 

— Skim milk. Making !!! 9^ 

— sold in New York in 1864 vi 

— spoiled by bad rennut !!!!!!!!"! 323 

— bigh temperature !.!!!!!!!""! 330 

— not turning 330 

— spoiling by breaking curd too rap"i"d"l"y! !!!!!!!!! 318 

— statistics 523-527 

— Si-ilton 428 

— — and Cotherstoiie, Analysis of...'.'.'.".*."."."."."."""' 304 

— — Characteristics of 429 

— — improved by cream 343 

— styles demanded abroad "278 

— The Derby shape 278 

— — young American 490 

— trad e for 1869, '70 and '71 ".".".' '5'^' 529 

— —of JO 

— tub, Cockey's £35 

— vat. Another form of heater under..'.'!!!!!!!!' 383 

— — and heater, Millar's circulating 390 

— — a utomatic, Description of 387 

— — Oneida 393 

— — with automatic heater !!.!!!!!!!!! 385 

— Water in a good 493 

r K ^V^ ^^^V'^ ; •■ .■.■.■.'.'.'.'.■.'.'.!262-264 

Cheshire cheese making 275 

— and Cheddar cheese. Composition of.'..'."." .306 

Ch urn dash 249 

— room and churning "".". 249 

— Shape of the Philadelphia •. '. 491 



Index. 



543 



PAGE. 
Churning, Causes affecting 504 

— Dog and stieep power for 507 

— Duration of 501 

— Experiments in temperature 483 

— How to be done 483 

— Power for 505 

— the cream or the mills 498 

— — milk, Dutch process 498 

— too quick 488 

Churns, Patent 495 

Cleaning dairy utensils 353 

— millf cans 355 

Clover, AIsi ke 72 

— seed and permanent pasture, Field experi- 

ments on 57 

Clovers, Value for milk lOJ 

— Analysis of 102 

Coagulating milk. Experiments In 357 

Coarse curds process. Salting 465 

Coloring butter 499 

— cheese 433 

— — for the Jjondon market 279 

Common stock. Crossing with thorough-breds 109 

Composition of cheese 297 

Concentrated food, Injury from feeding 135 

Condensed milk 193 

— — Elgin factory 108 

— — Knglish Company 197 

— — Kxports from New York 202 

— of 195 

— — in Switzerland 195 

— — Irish.... 19T 

— — trade. Origin and development of 193 

— — Two kinds of 201 

— milks. Consistency of 201 

Condensing factory. Provost's 201 

— milk. Process of 197 

— — • at Borden factory 197 

— — The Borden factories 197 

Cooking the curds 443 

— —curd, Wight's views 447 

Cooler, can and strainer, Burnap's 375 

Cooling milk with ice 455 

— — at the farm 373 

— morning's milk 437 

Corn — Analysis of varieties 81 

Cottage cheese, how made 479 

Cotton cake, compared with linseed cake 100 

— seed meal 93 

— statement of A. W. Cheever as to its 

value for milch cows 99 

— Voelcker'a views 99 

— Analysis of 100 

Cow, Marks of a good 121 

Cows, Alderneys as butter 115 

— Annual average product 21 

— average number for factory 367 

— bad habits inherited 119 

— Best breed of for the dairy 106 

— Breeding instead of purchasing 107 

— calving 137 

— change of food required 31 

— confined to one field more contented 30 

— driving from pasture 356 

— drying them of their milk 125 

— Escutcheon of for good 123 

— in bad 124 

— in mediocre 124 

— Fall and winter food for 123 

— feeding and management important 124 

— Form of escutcheon for first rate 123 

— good tempered. Value of 120 

— Guenon's discoveries 122 

— Importance of drawing all the milk 127 

— good condition for winter 131 

— shelter for 127 

— in close confinement 130 

— — New York in 1864 and 1865 19 

— injured by exposure 128 

— kept quiet 49 

— Magne's, Classification of 122 

— Milch for years 1840, 1850 and 1860, and ratio of 

population 17 

— Mr. Scott's management of 134 

— not necessary to be constantly feeding 49 

— Number for 1840, 1850, 1860, 1870 18 

— — of in U. S. in 1869 18 

— remarkablefor large yields 134 

— Selecting for the dairy. 121 

— teats— Wetting with milk 357 

Cracked cheese. How to remedy 470 

Cream affected by bad odors 503 

— Analysis of 482 

— two samples 497 

— Composition of 500 

— Density of 168 

— How the English transport 186 

— Scalding, For butter making 605 



PAGE. 
Cream spoiled in the churn 483 

— strainer. Baker's 488 

— Straining of. Fur butter 488 

— Temperature of. For summer 495 

— that first rises 488 

— When ready for churning 500 

Creamery Association of Wallkill 24'7 

Crossing Alderneys and Ayrshires 115 

Curd agitator rake 407 

— Amount of water in, When ready to go to the 

vat 316 

— cutting implements 441 

— filler 420 

~ knives, Cast steel dairy 407 

— Limits of temperature for improvement 317 

— mills 408 

— Precautions against too much whey 318 

— scoops 409 

— Water in. When ready to go to press 310 

Curds, Drawing off 456 

— floating 431 

— Salting 449 

— Why they should be ground 402 

Curing room not to be dark 470 

— — floors 423 

— rooms. Appliances for 423 

— — heat in 446 

— — warmed by steam 447 

Cutting the curds 440 

— and cooking the food. Skinner's experiments. 1,36 
— Stuart's exueiiments 136 

— down the boxes in packing 480 

Dairies, Associated 11 

Dairy belt, American 7 

— Company, Form of certificate for Stock 363 

— compared with other liusbandries 7 

— Country, Characteristics of a good 7 

— district of Wiltshire 291 

— flippers 408 

— farm, A good 8 

— — English management of 81 

— — system of rotation in crops 82 

— forms and fixtures 25 

— goods. Over production of 9 

— house, A small butter cellar for 43 

— — cheese making room for 43 

— — Cold spring water for 43 

— — Curing room 43 

— — for farm dairies 42 

— — Plan and description of for farm 45 

— — What is a proper one 42 

— Interest of. Progress and magnitude in U. S. . 16 

— practice, English 287 

— product of Herkimer Co., N. Y 521 

Ohio 521 

— Products of in U. S. for 1840-1850-1860-1870 18 

— — Com. Wells' estimates 25 

— — of the U. S. in 1850-1860 254 

— —Value in 1840 214 

— Relative advantages 8 

— stock. Education of 121 

— — in Orange Co 246 

— utensils, Cleaning 352 

Dairying, Associated 363 

— — European idea 362 

— English and American points of difference 

and merits 256 

— Requisites to success 46 

— Rise and progress of associated 213 

Daisy, destroying 245 

Dancel's experiments in watering cows 144 

Decay, fermentation and decomposition. Prof. 

Caldwell's views 188 

Derrick and hoisting wheel 424 

Devons 112, 113 

Devonshire cream 166 

Distance in delivering milk 372 

Double curds 467 

Drains, How to be laid 71 

Driving cows 356 

Dutch breed 116 

— cattle as milk producers 117 

Enclosures, Small, Poor economy 27 

Engine and boiler. Another new 385 

Exercise, Importance of for cows 127 

Expenditure of food by respiration— J. B. Law's 

experimen ts 139 

Experiments on clover seed and permanent pas- 
tures 57 

— with centrifugal machine for cheese making. .347 

Exposure, Cows injured by 128 

Factory buildings ,367 

— — and fixtures. Dr. Wight on 422 

— — Cost of 371 

— Herkimer Co., fancy 370 

— reports. Ohio 522 

— Sfinborn's 368 

— Sinclairville, Main building 418 



544 



Index. 



PAGE. 
Factory site 2^6 

— system, Advantages of ^22 

— — Hauling the uiillc 23J 

— — Its permanency 23o 

— — Objections to 221 

— ■weiglilng can g9g 

— Willow Grove, Description of 368 

Factories, Branch 377 

— — Advantages of 380 

— — Objections to 331 

— Distances in delivering milk 372 

— in Allegany Co., N. Y 535 

— — Ashland Co., Ohio 5138 

— — Ashtabula Co., Ohio 537 

— — Broome Co., N. Y 634 

— — Canada— Butter and cheese 5l0 

— — Cattaraugus Co., N. Y 5« 

— — Cayuga Co., N. Y 536 

— — Chautauqua Co., N. Y 5.56 

— — Chemung Co., N. Y 537 

— — Chenango Co., N. Y 531 

— — Clinton Co., N. Y 533 

— — Columbia Co., N. Y 533 

— — Connecticut— Butter and cheese 539 

— — Cortland Co.. N. Y 532 

— — Cuyahoga Co., Ohio 533 

— — Dutchess Co., N. Y 532 

— — Erie Co., N. Y 533 

— — Fulton Co., N. Y 532 

Ohio 537 

— — Geauga Co., Ohio 537 

— — Genesee Co., N. Y 534 

— — Greene Co.. N. Y 535 

— — Henry Co., Ohio 537 

— — Herkimer Co., N. Y 536 

— — Huron Co., Ohio 538 

— — Illinois— Butter and cheese 538 

— — Indiana— Butter and cheese 510 

— — Iowa— Butter and cheese 539 

— — Jefferson Co., N. Y 534 

— — Kansas— Butter and cheese 539 

— — Kentucky- Butter and cheese 533 

— — Lake Co., Ohio 538 

— — LewisCo., N. Y 5J3 

— — Lorain Co., Ohio 537 

— — Madison Co., N. Y 532 

— — Massachusetts— Butter and cheese 639 

— — Medina Co.. Ohio 538 

— — Michigan— Butter and cheese 639 

— — Minnesota— Butter and cheese 538 

— — Monroe Co., N. Y 533 

— — Montgomery Co., N. Y 533 

— — New York State-List of 531-537 

— — Niagara Co., N. Y 534 

— — Ohio— Butter and cheese 537,538 

— — Oneida Co., N. Y 531 

— — Onondaga Co., N. Y 533 

— — Ontario Co., N. V 533 

— — Orange Co.. N. Y 535 

— — Orleans Co., N. Y 533 

— — Oswego Co., N. Y 533 

— — Otsego Co.. N. Y 535 

— — Pennsylvania— Butter and cheese 539 

— — Portage Co., Ohio 537 

— — Rensselaer Co., N. Y 536 

— — Saratoga Co., N. Y 535 

— — Schenectady Co., N. Y 534 

— — Schoharie Co., N. Y 53Q 

— — Schuyler Co., N. Y 633 

— — Steuben Co., N. Y 533 

— — St. Lawrence Co., N. Y 534 

— — Summit Co., Ohio 538 

— — Tennessee— Butter and cheese 539 

— — TiogaCo., N. Y 535 

— — Tompkins Co., N. Y 536 

— — Trumbull Co., Ohio 537 

— — Vermont— Butter and cheese 539 

— — Virginia— Butter and cheese 539 

— — Washington Co., N. Y 534 

— — WayneCo., N. Y 531 

— — Wisconsin— Butter and cheese 538 

— — Wyoming Co., N. Y 534 

— — YatesCo., N. Y 5,35 

— Ingersol 1 378, 379 

— List of Cheese and Butter 531-540 

— Organization and selection of sites 225 

— Popular method of organizing ,362 

— selling cheese 364 

Fairfield factory, Description of 368 

Failing to face. Management of cheese when 448 

Fall feeding cows 145 

— management of cows 146 

Fancy factory cheese, Herkimer Co 462 

Farm dairies. Cooling morning's milk., 437 

— English, Harding's *. 2f;8 

— rents In England 268 

Fiults practical in making cheese 315 

Fjed, Spring and summer, for milch cows 137 



PAGE. 

Feeding cows for milk— Horsf all's experiments. . 141 

— grain in summer 142 

Fence, A light. How to make 28 

— Board 29 

— — How to make 29 

— Interior, tor dairy farms 27 

Fences, Log and rail 28 

— Movable panel 28 

— Picket 28 

Fencing 26 

— Bconomyin 29 

— Employing an engineer for 27 

— Expense of for farms of the State 26 

Flavor, Delicate of Stilton 430 

Floating curds 431 

— — Grinding for 432 

— — Iron's process for 433 

— —Moon's process ♦ 434 

— — Preventive of 435 ■ 

— — Remedy for 435 ■ 

— — Treatment of 436 11 

Fodder, Barns for cutting and steaming 36 ■ 

Food. A good article needed 9 

— Cheap and nutritious. Influence of 11 

— Dr. Thompson's experiments with, for ani- 

mals 103 1 

— Economical use of 12 BJ 

— Experiments in Dundee prison 15 Bi 

— gained by steaming 38 ■ 

— Gold prices for different kinds 9 

— Muscle making 14 

— Producing cheaply 11 

Gloucester cheese. Single and double analysis of. 307 

Gloucestershire 264 

Grades, Short-Horns HI 

Grafting the curds 467 

Grass, artificial. Green produce at Escrick Park. . 62 

— compared wiih cotton, corn, wheat, oat and 

potato crops— values of each 52 

— crop, Importance of 51 

— early and late cut, Relative value for cows 131 

— — cut. Value of 133 

— lands improved by irrigation 86 

— — Liquid manure for 67 

— — Management of 51 

— — Seeding in spring 74 

— — Top dressing of 55 

— with artiticial manure 56 

— gypsum 67 

— — Treatment of rough surfaces 82 

— Pecuniary value of 51 

— Turning cows to., 142 

Grasses, artificial. Table showing produce of 58 

— Butter, of Orange Co 242 

— for the dairy in England 266 

— — pastures, Gib.son's views 72 

— Influence of nitrogenous fertilizers 60 

— Lawes' and Gilbert's experiments 60 

— Milk producing varieties 66 

— nutritive value of different varieties. Table for 85 

— of Orange Co 242 

— Standard varieties for meadows 84 

Gypsum, Best method of sowing 67 

— Composition of 68 

— Quantity used per acre 68 

— Valueof 69 

Hair in stomach. Balls of 130 

Half soiling 77 

Hard fescue grass 73 

Hay on Harding's farm 270 

Heat, Best mode of applying 445 

— Danger of high 446 

— in cheese making 442 

— in curingrooms 446 

— Injudicious use of 444 

Heater and steam er. Agricultural 396 

— — vats, Position of 393 

— Automatic 385 

— — and cheese vat, Burrell's 385 

— Millar's, Description of 391 

— Old style self 388 

— undervat, Ralph's 388, .389 

— — the vat. Another form of 388 

Heating with dry steam 425 

Heifers coming in when two years old 120 

Herds, Division of 26 

— Large, unwieldy 26 

— Sizeof 25 

Herkimer factory 228 

Holstein or Dutch cattle 116 

Hoops, Cheese press 404 

Horsfall's experiments 141 

Hoven in cattle 150 

— How to treat 151 

Ice in cooling milk. Use of 455 

— injuring butter 455 

Improving hard dry cheese 479 

Irrigation of meadows 86 



IXDEX. 



>45 



PAGE. 

Irrigation— Sincliiir's opinion B7 

— UtilizinfT water from springs ." Sii 

Italian rye grass 73 

Jennings' pan 4'! 

— milk pan 433 

Jersey s 1 U 

Jewitt's pan 4S7 

June glass 243 

Kindness on milking stock, Influence ol' 1;0 

J^actouieter in court 155 

Ijund, Misdirection in tiie use of ]G 

Lice, Hutcliin's funiigator for destroying l:)2 

— Means of destroying 1,02 

liiminggrass lands Gil 

Linseed lOi 

— and beans, Milk and butter produced by feed- 

ing 102 

— Best way of feeding iJt 

— cake lot 

Liquid manuring, Application of to grass lands .. 83 

— — l)r. Voelcker's views as to value 83 

— — on Alderman Mechi's farm 83 

Lucerne 102 

— Analysis of 102 

— Composition of 103 

Machinery for cheese making 'iQi 

Management of cheese when falling to face 413 

— — cows, Scott's 134 

Mangolds and turnips. Analysis of 93 

— Jilxpeiise of growing 79 

Manufacturing cheese by the pound 385 

Manure, Bone 90 

.- cellars. Convenience of 3S 

•- — Practical bearing of 41 

f- Truesdale's practice 38 

Meadow fescue 73 

— — ill Uevonshire 207 

Meadows— cause of running out 133 

— English system of management 81 

— Getting a good turf on 133 

— near Edinburg 83 

— permanent 83 

Milk, Absorptive properties of 103 

— Action of rennet upon 183 

— Adding lime water to for children 205 

— affected by climate 17S 

— the size and breed of animals 179 

— and butter. Yield of, by feeding linseed and 

beans 103 

— as food 14 

— Association, Orange Co 2.'>1 

— — Ro.;kville 251 

— lioiled less digestible 203 

— Biirden'a condensing process 200 

— business of Orange Co 240 

— butter and cheese, Equalizing the supply of.. 11 

— can, Tlie French 185 

— Canning and keeping in good order 185 

— cans. Cleansing and steaming 335 

— — Factory 397 

— — Open or closed 18B 

— carried on Erie Railway 521 

— cellar, Crozier's 484 

— coagulated with acids ,358 

— Coagulation of 187 

— Experiments 357 

— Color of 104 

— Composition of new 390 

— the products from, in making butter 500 

— Condensing, Process of 197 

— conductor 398 

— consumed as food, table showing per centage 

to each person 22 

— consumption, per centage of, previous to 1801. 21 

— cooler. Improved National 373 

— — Northrup's 376 

— coolers, Hawley's and Bussey's 373 

— coolingat the farms 373 

— Cost of producing in old districts 233 

— transport to New York city 23 

— Cows required to supply New "^ork city on 

Harlem and Erie roads 22 

— crop. Value of in 1860 23 

— Delivery at factories 229 

— Description of 153 

— JClfect of agitation in traveling 185 

carriage upon the cream product 186 

— soils on its keeping quality 185 

— Experiments in using 209 

— Extra rich. Analysis of 339 

— feverish, Its infectious character ....'. 184 

— for skim cheese 41)7 

— from cows inhaling bad odors. Injury of . .""!! 181 

— — watering cows. Increase of 144 

— Gallons sold in New York in 1864 19 

— Globules. Description of ]68 

— How taints in the dairy affect 193 

— Improved by exposure to thealr while cooling 182 



PAGE. 

Milk— Influence of food in changing? the relative 

ccjiistitueiits of .109, 5r!0 

— influenced by food— Voelcker's opinion 177 

— Its quality determined by breed Oiaiiirnals... 1?7 

— — use and management for infants and child- 

ren 202 

— Kuhn's e.X|ierimentslor ranging its quality... 170 

— L. B. Arnold's experiments in cooling 183 

— nianutaeture when tainted 401 

— Manufactured and used for food in Thirteen 

States ill ISr.0 20 

— Method of setting for cream 248 

— Mineral matters of 168 

— Neutral or alkaline 165 

— of diseased cows 180 

— pail for setting and cream dipper 249 

— pails for setting milk 494 

— — Millar's 353 

— —Ralph's 354 

— pan, Jewett's 43« 

— — Jennings' 488 

— pans, Jennings' 43 

— p:ntiallyskimined, Analysis of 34." 

— percentage consumed as food 20 

— Phosphates in a gallon 65 

— Plain and condensed 195 

— product and value of in 1870 24 

— production. Influence of fodder upon 170 

— jiroximate acidity for cheese 2:J0 

— Quality, How affected 109 

— Quantity tor butter and cheese 241 

— — Increased by forcing system 48 

— — influenced by grasses 55 

— — produced inflve days from different kinds 

of food 103 

— — received in the city at deiiots Erie, Harlem 

and Long Island R. R., ISO! 22 

— recent tests of i;o 

— Relative nutritive value of 12 

— Richness of Alderney 11,5 

— Room for farm dairies 484 

— — Regulating temperature... 494 

— Rules for the treatment of at condensing 

factor! es 199 

— Secretion of.ahabit 1,33 

— setting for butter. Best temperature for 485 

— — in water pools 494 

— Skimmed, Analysis of Z"^ 

— — as a diet In disease 208 

— Speciflcgravity— A test of quality 154 

— Spontaneous changes in '. 102 

— Stirring, during the night i;^ 

— stock 246 

— — averse to exercise 47 

— — Good constitution Important 101 

— Table showing its composition, resulting from 

Dr. Kuhn's experiments with different kinds 

of food 173 

— -pec centage of minerals leo 

— tester 421 

— tests itju 

— theflrstafter calving. Analysis of 179 

— — souring accompar.ied by yeast iermeiit 192 

— theory of rennet coagulation 167 

— tinted by food 105 

— to a pound of butter 238 

— Pratt's report 497 

— turned to most profit 499 

— Treatment of the evening's mess 22;) 

— Variation of, in quality from poor keep 132 

— Water in... 47 

— Watered, How to test 159 

— Weighing the solids and the ash 162 

— When ready for churning 500 

— Woman's, Characteristics of 204 

— yield per cow in Saxony no 

Milkers and milking on Harding's farm 270 

Milking 355 

— for the London market 136 

— Importance of drawing all from the cow 127 

— Regular hours for 358 

— Wettingthe teats ,357 

— withdryhands 357 

Modern milk pan 485 

Mops, Rubber 409 

Neat cattle. Number and value of 51 

Neglect, Loss of cows from 128 

New milk. Composition of 500 

Normandy butler— how put up 481 

Oats, Composition of 104 

Ohio factory reports 522 

Orchard grass 72 

— — Complaint against, and how obviated 85 

Organizing cheese factories. Form of 363 

OviT-heating, Guard against 446 

Packages badly made for butter 511 

Painted cheese 4'71 

Pastures, Breaking up unprofitable 55 



546 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Pastures— Chanfre of for eows SO 

— Fresli cow dung objectiiin;ibie In- u7 

— — produce scours 30 

— How improved go 

— — tolaydown "1 

— Influence of location G9 

— a good seed bed for seedin.-,' 71 

— insufficient drainage TO 

— not to be overstocked 31 

— Old for fattening stock 54 

— Overstocking, &c •')2 

— Permanent 25 

— Plowing up and re-seedin^r 53 

— Seeding for and variety of seeds 71 

— Sliades in 48 

— Trouble with recently re-seedeil 6fj 

— what kinds are best for the dairy 53 

Philadelphia butter 490 

Phosphates, quantity in a gallon of milk 55 

I'igs, Feeding, Law's experiment 110 

Pine-apple cheese liT 

— Manufacture of i'J 

Poison cheese ^7:3 

— — Dr. Jackson's analysis of 4T;i 

— — from damp and imperfect curing rooms 4i'5 

— — Voelcker's experiments 473 

Poor keep. Affect quality of milk ]'i2 

Post holes. How to dig 29 

Power, Slieep, Kichardson's 507 

— for churning 505 

Pre lace 5 

Preliminary to cheese making 352 

Press rings, llubber 4:4 

— — Wooden -105 

Rape cake 101 

Heceiving platform at factories 4:i4 

Rectangular cheese - 4!U 

Red ti)p 72 

Regulations for cheese factories 304 

Rennet at Wall's Court, Eng., Preparation of 335 

— English method of preparing 3.il 

— Hallier's assertion as to its action V.U 

— jar 3(10 

— more nei;ded when milk is sinir 400 

— Voelcker's experiments with 324 

Rennets 359 

— badly prepared 300 

— heat affecting 192 

— How to cure 359 

— saved from healtliy calves 359 

— steeping in whey 300 

— straining the liquid 361 

Root growing at York Mills, N. Y 91 

Roots, Birnie's plan of raising and feeding 79 

— for dairy stock. Growing 87 

— Influence of the crop for rotation 95 

— PulUng and storing 94 

— Time and method of sowing 93 

— Varieties grown at York Mills ; 92 

Rough stalked meadow grass 73 

Rules and regulations for Sinclairville' cheese 

factory 36G 

— for factory where proprietor purchases the 

milk 366 

Salt afferting the flavor of cheese 450 

— cheese spoiled by too much 328 

— factory Hlled 452 

— How to distinguish good 453 

— Importatnce of f or cows 143 

— the kind to be used 451 

Salting butter 502 

— cneesefor hot weather 451 

— — in spring— quantity 451 

— cows 142 

— the curds 449 

Saltpeter— its use in cheese making 471 

Sanborn factory— elevation 301) 

Scales 410 

— Boards 480 

Schweitzer cheese 475 

Scotch method of butter making 498 

Sc(mrs produced by fresh pastures 30 

Scratching poles 129 

Scurfy cheese. Remedy for 472 

Shade trees. Argument against, in pastures 49 

Short-Hor ns 110 

— — grades Ill 

Shute for drawing curds 456 

Sinclairville factory, manufacturing department. 419 
Sink 419 

— casters 409 

Size of cheese— popular weights of 479 

Skim cheese. Analysis of milk and whey 337 

— — Manufacture 496 

— milk cheese. Composition of 310 

Skimmed milk. Composition of 500 

8kipv)er3, How to v>revent 470 

timuU enclosures, Cost of 27 



PAGE. 

Soiled stock, Health of 75 

Soiling, advantages of 75 

— Dr. Wight's exiierience 77 

— Kinds of food to be used 76 

— Manures saved in 76 

— niilch stock 74 

— Mr. Birnie's plan 7S 

— Quincy's experiments '75 

— 'I'lie common plan 80 

— I'lme for sowing corn 80 

— with fodder corn 80 

Somerset and its system of farming 258 

Sour Wliey, Use in cheese making 437 

— — application of at farm dairies 231 

Specific gravity of milk 154 

— drawn from different quarters of the 

udder 161 

— Experiments with 158 

— from different cows 155 

— Influence of the molecular condition 

of caseine 160 

— varies in different day.s Ifti 

— of skimmed milk 154 

— watered milk 154 

Spring and summer feed for milch cows 137 

Stencil plates for marking 480 

Stilton cheese 478 

— —Size of 430 

^ — Temperature low for 429 

Stirring the milk during night 453 

Stock of Somerset 260 

— Selection, care and manageme t of 106 

— t-hould be wintered well 132 

Stomach, The fourth in calves 1.30 

Stomachs of ruminants, Pre|)ari..g foud for as- 
similation 129 

Straw 103 

— Analysis of different kinds 103 

— Nutriiive equivalent compared with hay 103 

Stripui ngs 179 

Sugar of milk 168 

Summer temperature of dairy regi'in 517-520 

Sweet vernal grass 72 

Swiss cheese. Manufacture of 476 

Tainted milk 4(il 

Teats, Short 114 

Temperature, Best for setting milk 485 

— for churning, H.vperiments in 483 

— of dairy region— Summer 517-520 

— Proper for gathering the butter 501 

Thermometer, Dairy 409 

— Using a good 490 

Timothy 73 

Top dressing after mowing 84 

— — meadows. Influence of flne and coarse ma- 

nure 84 

— — with liquid manures 82 

Turnip culture 89 

— — Bone manure for 90 

Turnips and mangolds, analysis of 96 

— Harvesting, storing and feeding 90 

— How to sow 92 

— Manures for 92 

— Time of sowing 93 

Value of cheese product of 1865-1863 256 

Vermont cow. Record of 133 

Voelcker on composition of cheese 297—332 

Voelcker's cheese experiments 333 

Washing butter 502 

— the tables and ranges 470 

Water, Dancel's experiments with cows 144 

— Good importance of for cows 143 

— in curd when ready to go to press 316 

— Influence of bad on stock 46 

— Necessity of good for stock 46 

— Wind power for pumping 47 

Watered milk. How to tell 159 

Weeds the curse of dairying 52 

— How to kill 52 

Weighing can 398 

Whey, Application of sour 231 

— at factories. Disposal of 376 

— — farm dairies, A pplication of sour 231 

— — three periods. Composition of 320 

— butter, how made 514 

— cheese. Analysis of 361 

— composition of 319 

— from skim cheese. Analysis of 338 

— — extra rich cheese. Analysis of 3.39 

— — partly skimmed cheese, Analysis of 341 

— in cheese making. Sour 437 

— — the curd. Caution against too much 3W 

— sti-ainer and siphon 407 

Wilts cheese. Manner of making 262 

Wiltshire 261 

— Warwickshire and Leicestershire cheese, 

Composition of 309 

Wire grass 24,1 



VERY FEW MEN 

Have ever made the manufacture of Churns a specialty, and have put into their 
"work enough money, or time, or conscience, to make a really Jirst-class article. 

The present manufacturers of ^'- The Blanchard Churn'' have been engaged 
(father and sons) in the making of Churns for over fifty years ! They have devoted 
much time to the scientific investigation of the process of Butter Making, and devel- 
oping the best mechanical means for aiding it. It has been for many years their onli/ 
business. They have carefully observed and examined every new claimant for the 
dairyman's favor. They have been constantly testing and applying improvements to 
the Churn they have been making. They have been perfecting the machinery and 
appliances of their factory. They have been untiring in their efforts to combine 
every desirable quality in their Churn, and to omit every thing needless or compli- 
cated. They believe they have succeeded, and confidently ofi'er 



as combining more good qualities than any other Churn now made. It has been 
made and used over twenty years, and there are now in successful operation over 



No other Chum is made of as good material, or as well. 

It cannot get out of order, because it is so simple. 

St has no cog wheels or gearing. 

It brings the Butter as quickly as it ought to come. 

It works the Butter free from buttermilk, in the Churn, 

without any change of dasher, quicker and better than it can be done 
by hand. It works in the Salt in the same way. 
It is a perfect AUTOMATIC BUTTER MAKER. 



THE AUTHOR OF THIS BOOK, 

Hon. X. »t. Willard, Jtairy Mditov of Jfloore's Jitiral JVetc-J^orkei', says of itt 

" Your Churn has been in use in my dairy during the past season. It is simple in 
its construction, is easily cleaned, and does its work in, the best manner. It is a 
Churn I can safely recommend to butter makers." 

HON. MASON C. WELD, 

JLate ttssociate JSditof of tlte .Atnerican .tgrictiUttrist, says of itt 

" I will not simply say that it does its work well, for we are very critical; but 
will say it does it to our supreme satisfaction^ both in churning and work- 
ing the butter. Of late the whole work has been done by a girl of fourteen." 

Our Churns are now in general use in the dairies of the most intelligent farmers in 
the country. They are on sale in every State in the Union, by all dealers in really 
first-class Farmers' Implements. 

WE MAKE FIVE SIZES. 

No. 6, for about 12 gals, of Cream. Retail price, $9 

No. 7, " 18 " " 10 

Pnlleys famished for power. 

SAMPLE CHURNS sent for examination and trial to towns where we have no 

Agents, on receipt of 25 per cent less than our retail prices, and satisfaction guaranteed. 

No Churns sent for sale on Consignment or Commission. 

For Churns, Agencies, or full Descriptive Circulars, send to the Sole Manufacturers, 

POETER BLANOHAED'S SONS, Concord, N. H. 



No. 3, for about 2 gals, of Cream, 


EetaU price, 


$6 


No. 4, " 4 " 


II 


7 


No. 5, "8 " 


« 


8 



THE BEST IN ITS SPHERE OF JOURNALISM ! 




HAS FOR NEARLY TWENTY-FIVE YEARS BEEN THE 

RECOGNIZED LEADER 

in its Important Field of Journalism. Favorably known through the length 
and breadth of the land, and in Europe, it has the 

L^jiaEST omcuL^Tioisr 

of any Newspaper of its Class on this Continent or in the World, and the 

LARGEST BNFLUENCE, 

from the Reliability of its Teachings. The Extent and Variety of the In- 
formation in its pages, make it not only the Best Agricultural Paper, but 
the Best Family Paper, and the Best Literary Paper, as it is the Best 
Authority on Rural Topics^ and furnishes 

THE BEST STORIES ! 

THE FKESHEST NE'WS I 

THE EATEST a>tSCOVERIES ! 

ACCURATE MARKET REPORTS ! 

lEEUSTRATEO ARTICEES, &c., &c. 

Beside tlie writings of llie Concluctiiig and Associate Editors, its Corps of Puid and 
Volunteer Contribuiors is larger tlian that attached to auy otlier Rural, Literary and 
Family Weekly, making 

MOORE'S RURAL NEW-YORKER 

the Organ in and through -which great and beneficial efforts toward 

"PROGRESS AND IMPROVEMENT" 

are originated and commnnicated to the People. 

In tlie Future, as in the Past, the Rural's Motto "will be '' Excelsior P^ except in 
Price, which was reduced Jan. 1, 1872 — making it 

the: cheapest paper of its size ! 

the cheapest uural aveeki.y ! 

the cheapest famiiiy journal t 



ZIVIFXIOVED STlTSiS AND HEDUCED FRICE ! 

Each No. of the Rural New-Tohker for 1872 will comprise Sixteen Quarto Pages, (larger 
than Harper's Weekly,) printed from New Type, on Extra Fine and Heavy Paper, and Illustrated 
and Printed in the Higliest Style of the Typographic Art. 

REDUCED TERMS, In Advancer-Single Copy, $2,50 per Tear. To Clubs: 
Five Copies, and one copy free to Ag-ent or (retter-iip of Club, for $12.50 ; Seven Copies, and one 
free, for $16 ; Ten Copies, and one free, for $30— only $2 per copy. As we are obliged to pre-pay 
the American postage on pHpers mniled to foreign countries. Twenty Cents should be added to 
above rates for each yearly copj^ mailed to Csinada, and One Dollar per copy to Europe. Drafts, 
Post-OfBce Money Orders and Registered Letters may be mailed at our rislf. 

1^^ Liberal Premiums to all Club Agents who do not take free copies. Specimen Num- 
bers, Show-Bills, &c., sent free. Address 

D. D. T. MOORE, 

Rural NcTV- Yorker Office, IVe^r York City. 



iflaorc's Stanbarb Uural |)ubUcotions. 

The People's Practical Poultry Book. 

A WOKK ON THE 

BREEDING, REARING, CARE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 

BIT W3M[. WZ. ItH^^lS. 



This work contains Practical Information on 

THE BEST BREEDS TO RAISE, 

BEST MODE OF MANAGEMENT, 

NUMBER OF FOWLS TO KEEP, 

DRESSING AND PACKING, 
PREVENTION AND CURE OF DISEASES. 
CAPONIZING PROCESS, 
INCUBATORS, 
POULTRY HOUSES. 
POULTRY ENEMIES, &c. 

The work is the most thorough Treatise on the subject that has yet been 
issued, and has won unqualified approbation from the Press, and from Poul- 
try Raisers all over the country. It is 

PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED 

with Engravings, mostly from Original Designs by the best Artists. 



WHAT TH£ FRZSSS SA'S'S OT IT. 



From the Kansas Farmer. 

For a tborougb and complele work, it is 
the most, concise and direct ot any poiillry 
book we are acquainted wilb. There are 
single pns^es wortli tbe price of tlie book to 
any one wlio keeps fowls. 

From the Michigan Farmer. 

It is the American ponllry hook of the 
limes, witlioiit doubt, and Mr. Moore is en- 
titled to !i vote of thanks for hrin^ing it oid, 
as well as Mr. Lewis for writing it. 

From the American Bural Home. 

The author bns evidenlly aimed to bring 
together tlie greatest amount of practicnl in- 
formation from all soiu-ces within bis rencli, 
and present it to the reader in a popidar 
and convenient form, making his work espe- 
cially valuable for reference. 



From the Country Gentleman. 

TffR author presents a book which will 
be a convenient addition to the library of 
any poultry keeper. 

Fi'om the Rochester Daily Express. 

The method of artificial hatching and 
cnre of the young, is fully set forth, and the 
most improved incubators illnstrated. Those 
who liave bad years of experience in poultry 
raising will find new and valuable informa- 
tion in the chapter on capoinzing, AvbiJe for 
tlie beginner and amateur the whole work 
is indispensable. 

From the JSf. Y. Daily Sun. 

It is just such a book as every person 
wants who keeps domestic fowls, either for 
profit or pleasure. 



Sent by mail, free of postage, for ^1.50. Address 

D. D. T. MOORE, Publisher, 

Rural Ne-w-Yorker Oflice, Wew Yorlc City, 



jMoaxcQ Stanbflrir Bural |)ublicaUone. 



NE^^ EDITIOlSr OF 



The Practical Shepherd, 

By HENRY S. RANDALL, LL. D., 

Author of ^' Sheep Husbandry in the South,'' ''Fine Wool Sheep Hus- 
bandry,''' dtc, and Editor of the Sheep Husbandry Depart- 
ment of Moore's Rural New- Yorker 



This work is the Standard Authority on the 



BREEDDiG. lAEGEMT Al DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

The book contains all that is known of the subject up to the time of its 
publication, and is universally acknowledged to be the 

MOST COMPLETE WORK ON SHEEP HUSBANDRY EXTANT. 



OFIlO'XOIiJS OF THIS FKESS. 



From the Neio England Farmer, Boston. 

The Pkactical Shepherd is a work that 
lias loDg been needed by our people. It 
should be in the liand and head of every 
person owning sheep. 

From the Country Gentleman and Cultwator. 

As a whole, this book is unquestionably 
in advance of anything of the kind now be- 
fore the public. 

From the Maine Farmer. 

The name of tlie author, Hon. H. S. Ran- 
dall, is a guarantee of its completeness and 
reliability. 

F'om the Neio York Tnhuv£. 

In this volume the author has exhausted 
the subject, and given all tliat is necessary 
for any farmer to know about selecting, 
breeding and general management of sheep, 
in healtli or sickness. We heartily com- 
mend this work to all who wisli for a sound 
and tliorougU treatise on Sheep Husbandry. 



From the Ohio Farmer. 

The reputation of the author — who ranks 
as THE authority in this country upon all 
liiat pertains to the breeding and manage- 
ment ot'slieep — will induce a large and con- 
tinued demand for " The Practical Shep- 
herd." 
From the Journal of the N. Y. State Ag'l Body. 

The Practical Shepherd is a most 
complete work on Sheep Husbandry for 
tlie priictical wool grower, and gives all the 
important mailer required for the manage- 
ment of sheep, as well as a description of 
the various l)reeds adapted to our country. 
This work meets the wants of the wool 
growers. 

From the Prairie Farmer. 

The illustrations of sheep are by the best 
artists of New York, and well done. The 
letter press and paper are all that could be 
desired in a work of this description. It 
will undoubtedly meet with the large sale 
its merits demand. 



Twenty-seventh Edition now ready. Sent by mail, free of postage, for 
Two Dollars. Address all orders to 

D. D. T. MOORE, Publisher, 

Rural I¥eTr- Yorker Office, ^ew York City* 



LIST OF RURAL BOOKS, 

FOE SALE AT THE OFFICE OF 

RE'S RURAL NEW-YORKER, 

Or Sent by Mailf j^ost-paid, on Meceipt 
of Price, 



Allen's [L. F.] Ameriean Cattle $2 00 

Do. New American Farm Book 2 50 

Do. Diseases of Domestic Animals 1 00 

Do. Kui-al Arcliitecture 1 00 

American Bird Fancier 30 

American Pomology [i.'90 Illustrations] . 3 00 

American Practical Cookery 1 75 

American Rose Culturist , 30 

American Sharp - Shooter [Telescopic 

Kiile] 50 

American Wheat Culturist [Todd] 2 00 

Architecture [Cumrr.ings & Miller] 382 

Designs and 714 Illustrations 10 00 

Architecture, National, [Geo. E. Wood- 
ward] 12 00 

Arcliitecture, Principles and Practice of 

[Loring & Jenny] 12 00 

Bee-Keepers ' Text-Book, Paper 40 

Do. Muslitt 75 

Bement's Rabbit Fancier 30 

Eicknell's Village Builder [55 Plates, 

showing New and Practical Designs] 10 00 
Bommer's Method of Making Manui'es. . 22 

Boussingault's Rural Economy 1 60 

Breck's Book of Flowers [ncu] 1 75 

Bridgeman's Gardener's Assititant 2 50 

Buist's Family Kitchen Gardener 1 00 

Do. Flower Garden 1 50 

Buit's V egetables of America 5 CO 

Chemistry of the Farm [Nichols] 1 25 

Choilt<m's Grape Grower's Guide 75 

Cider Maker's Manual 1 50 

Clater's New Illustrated Cattle Doctor, 

[Colored Plates] 6 00 

Cobbett's American Gardener 75 

Cole's American Fruit Book 75 

Cole's American Veterinarian 75 

Cotton Culture 1 50 

Cotton Planter's Manual [Turner] 1 50 

Crack Shot [Barber] 1 75 

Cranberry Cultui'e [John J. White's] Ills. 1 25 

Dadd's American Cattle Doctor 1 50 

Do. Modern Horse Doctor 1 50 

Dana's Muck Manual ... 1 25 

Darlington's American Weeds and Use- 
ful Plants 1 75 

Darwin's Animals and Plants 6 00 

Dead Shot ; or. Sportsman's Complete 

Guide 1 75 

Downin^'s Cottage Residences 3 00 

Do. Fruits and Fruit Trees of America 

[1100 pp.] 5 00 

Do Landscape Gardening 6 50 

Do. Rural Essays 3 .50 

Drainage for Profit and Health 1 50 

Du Breuil's Vineyard Culture [Warder] . 2 00 



Dyer and Color Maker's Companion %\ 25 

Eveleth's School House Architecture 10 00 

Eastwood's Cranberry Culture 75 

Elliott's Lawn and Shade Trees 1 50 

Everybody His Own Lawyer 1 25 

P'arm Drainage [H. F. French] 1 50 

Farm Implements and Machinery [J. J, 

Thomas] 1 50 

Farmer's Barn Book 1 50 

Farming for Boys 1 50 

Field's fear Culture 1 25 

Fishing in American Waters [Scott] 3 50 

Flagg's European Vineyards 1 50 

Flint on Grasses 2 50 

Fulton's Peach Culture. A Hand-Book 

and Guide to Every Planter 1 50 

Do. Milch Cows and Dairy Farming 2 50 

Frank Forrester's Field Sports [2 vols] . . 6 00 
Do. Fish and Fishing [lOU engravings] . . 5 00 

Do. Manual For Toung Sportsmen 3 00 

Fuller's Hlustrated Strawberry Culturist. 25 

Do. Forest Tree Culturist 1 50 

Do. Small Fruits [Illustrated] 1 50 

G ardeniug for Profit [P. Henderson] 1 50 

(hardening for the South 2 nO 

Grape Culturist [A. S. Fuller] 1 50 

Gray's Manual of Botany and Lessons . . 4 00 

Do. School and Field Book of Botany 2 50 

Do. How Plants Grow [lOO Illustrations] 1 12 
Do. Manual of Botany in the Northern 

States [700 pp., Illustrated] 1 25 

Do. Introduction to Structural and Sys- 
tematic Botany and Vegetable Physiol- 
ogy [1300 Illustrations] 3 50 

Gregory on Squashes 30 

Guenon on Milch Cows 75 

Gnu, Rod and Saddle 1 50 

Harney's Bams, Outbuildings and Fences.] 00 

Harris on Insects 4 00 

Do. on the Pig— Breeding, Management, 

&c 1 50 

Hatfield's American House Carpenter. .. 3 50 
Hibbard's Rustic Adornments for Homes 

of Taste. [Colored Plates] 9 CO 

Hints to Horse Keepers [Hertert'sJ 1 75 

High Farming Without Manure 35 

Holly's Art of Saw-Filing 1 50 

Holly's Carpenter's Hand-Book [new] ... 75 

Hooper's Dog and Gun 30 

Hoope's Book of Evergreens 3 00 

Hop Culture 40 

How Crops Feed 2 00 

How Crops Grow 2 00 

How to Cook, Carve and Eat. 1 50 

Hunter and 'Trapper 1 00 

Hussmann's Grapes and Wine 1 50 



EUKAL NEW-TOEKER BOOK LIST, 



1 



Indian Com; Its Value, Culture and Uses $1 50 

Jenning's on Cattle 1 75 

Do. lltirso and Ms Diseases 1 75 

Do. Horse Training Made Easy 1 25 

Do. Slioep, Swine and Poultry 1 75 

Johnston's Agiicultural Cliemistry 1 75 

Do. Elements of Agricultural Chemistry 1 50 

Kemp's Landscape Gardening 2 00 

Langstioth on the Hive and Honey Bee. 2 00 

Louchar's How to build Hot-Houses 1 50 

Lie big's Agricultural Chemistry 1 00 

Manual of Agi'iculture [Emerson and 

Flint 1 25 

Manual on Elax and Hemp Culture 25 

Manual of Tobacco Culture 30 

Market Assistant [De Voe] 2 50 

Masury's Treatise on Plain and Decora- 
tive House Painting 1 75 

Mayhew's Illustrated Horse Management 3 00 

Mason's Farrier and Stud Book 1 50 

McMahon's American Gardener 2 25 

Mechanic's f'ompanion [Nicholson] 3 00 

Meehan's Hand - Book of Ornamental 

Trees 75 

Miles on Horse's Foot [cloth] 75 

Modern Cookery [by Miss Acton and 

Mrs. S.J. HaleJ 1 50 

My Farm at Edgewood 1 75 

McClure's Diseases of Horse, Cattle and 

Sheep 2 00 

Money in the Garden [by P. T. Quinn] . . 1 00 

Norris' Fish Ciilture 1 75 

^Corton's Elements Scientific Agriculture 75 

Onion Cultm-e 25 

Our Farm of Four Acres 30 

Pardee on StrawbeiTy Culture 75 

Parkraan's Book of Koses 3 00 

Parsons on the Eose 1 50 

Pear Culture for Profit [P. T. Quinn] .... 1 CO 

Peat and its Uses 1 25 

Pedder's Land Measure 60 

Practical and Scientific Fruit Culture 

[Baker] 4 00 

Practical Floriculture fP. Henderson].. 1 50 
Practical Poultry-Keeper [L. Wright].. 2 00 

Practical Shepherd [Randall] 2 00 

Practical Stair Builder[30 original plates] 1 00 
Preparation of Cooked Food for the Fat- 
tening of Cattle 25 

Quinby's Mysteries of Bee-Keeping 1 .50 

Quincy on Soiling Cattle 1 25 

Band's Bulbs 3 00 

Do Garden Flowers 3 00 

Eandall's Fine "Wood Husbandry 1 00 

Do. Sheep Husbandry in the South 1 50 

Eichardson on the Dog 30 



River's Jliniature Fruit Garden $1 OC 

Schenck'.s Gardener's Text-Book 75 

Scribner's Produce Tables 30 

Do. Ready Reckoner and Log Book 30 

Simpson's Horse Portraiture— Pjreeding, 

Reaiiug and Training Trotters 2 50 

Six Hundred Receipts 1 75 

Skillful Housewife 75 

Squashes [iregory] 30 

Stewart's [John] Stable Book 1 50 

Tegctmeier s Poultry Book [Colored 

Plates] 9 00 

Tegetmeier's Pigeon Book [Col'd Plates]. .5 00 

Ten Acres Enouah 150 

The Mule— A Treatise on the Breeding, 
Training and Uses to which he may 

be put 1 50 

The Barn-Yard [A Manual] 1 00 

The Book of Evcrgi'cens 3 00 

The Boston Machinist [Fitzgerald] 75 

The Dog [by Dinks, Mayhew and Hutch- 
inson] 3 00 

The Garden [A Manual] 1 00 

The Percheron Horse 1 00 

The People's Practical Ponltiy Book 1 50 

The Tree Lifter, a New Method of Trans- 
planting Forest Trees 1 50 

Thomas' American Fruit Culturist [480 

Hlustrations] 3 00 

Thompson's Food of Animals 1 00 

Do. Young Farmer's Manual 2 50 

Trapper's Guide 2 00 

Trout Culture [by Seth Green] 1 00 

Trowbridge's, Mrs. Laura, Excelsior 

Cook-Book and Housekeeper's Aid 1 25 

Ventilation in American Dwellings 1 50 

Warder's Hedges and Evergreens 1 50 

Waring's Eai th Closets 50 

Do. Elements of Agriculture 1 00 

Watson's American Home Garden 3 00 

Wax Flowers and How to Make Them.. 2 00 

Western Fruit Growers' Guide 1 50 

Wheeler's Homes for the People 3 00 

Do Ruri'l Homes 2 00 

WoodrufiTs Trotting Horse of America.. 2 25 
Woodward's Graperies and Horticultural 

Buildings 1 50 

Do. Country Homes 1 50 

Do Cottages and Fanj Houses 1 ."iO 

Do. Subui-Dan and Country Houses ... 1 50 

Youatt on the Horse 1 50 

Touatt and Martin on Cattle 1 50 

Youatt and Martin on the Hog _. 1 00 

Youiuan's Hand-Book of Household Sci- 
ence 2 00 

Do. New Chemistry 2 00 



^^' Any Books — Agricultural or Miscellaneous — not enumerated in the above list, may 
be 9btained at either of the Offices of the RaRAL New-Yoekek, (New York or Eochester, 
N. Y.,) or they will be famished by mail, post-paid, on receipt of price Eemittances by 
Draft, P. 0. Money Order, or Ilegistered Letter, may be made at the risk of the Publisher. 
Address all orders by mail to 



1>. D, T, MOOBB, PtCblisher, 

XS.ux>a,l TVe^v-'Y'orlier Offi.ce, 

IXETT irORK: CITY. 



A 



amOULTURAL PTEAMER 

HAS NOT YET FOUND ITS EftUAL 



ir-ort THE 



(jUALITIES OF SAFETY, DOEABILITY. 

UTILITY AND ECONOMY, 

For Cooking Food for Stock, and for General Purposes about 

the Dairy and Piggery. 

— »♦« — - 

We have the past season added pi. r?—. to get up steam -with thirty gallons 

a Patent Flue to pass the beat and ^'^;;|^^^ of water in thirty minutes, by the use 

flame around the boiler before reach- ^*^^^^^ of thirty-three pounds of wood, and 

ing the stacli. This Flue can be [^"^^3 a good fire remaining. This Steamer 

filled to any Steamer of our make at "^-^^^i can be had of any responsible dealer, 

trifling cost, and with it we are able «a^^^*^ 1^^^^ if not found address as below. 



DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING FOOD AND USE OF THE STEAMER. 

In setting the steainer, get a good draft, and let it be near the work to be done, and where 
water in abundance is at hand to wet the fodder. 

To Cooic Hay.— Cut It, wet It ivell, put it in upright tanks or caslcs, with false bottom and 
tight cover, press it down firmly, puss the steam in under the false bottom, and cook until done. 

To Cook Corn.— Soak as many barrels half full as you wish to cook from fifteen to twenty- 
four hours, turn on steam, and cook until done, when the barrels should be full. 

To Make Mush.— Fill as many barrels half full of water, as you wish to make barrels of 
mush, bring the water nearly to a boil by passing the steam to the bottom, stir in each barrel IM 
to 1% bushels meal uutil well mixed, then cook until done, when the barrels should be full. 

To Cook Vegetables.— Fill the barrels full, and if no other cover at hand, chop the top 
fine with a shovel, then cover them overwitli bran, meal or provender, and cook until done ; have 
holes in the bottom of the barrels to carry off condensed steam. 

To Scald Hogs.— Set a cask (if a box is not used) on an incline against your platform, pass 
your steam to the bottom of the water until suflBciently hot. 

To Wash Clothing.— Pass the steam into your tub of water to heat it to do the washing. 
The clothes can be boiled after by steam in the tub, or any wooden vessel, without fear of rust. 

To Scald Churns or Cans.— Put a small quantity of water In the article, pass the steam 
pipe to the bottom, put a cloth around the top, and turn on the steam. Milk Pans can be scalded 
in a tub of water. 

In all cases pass the steam to the bottom to boil any substance, and shut off steam, or tnke 
out the pipes when the cooking is done, as tlie boiler in cooling off draws the substance into it 
and the pipes. Full directions for use sent with each steamer. 

Prize Essays on Cooking and Cooked Food for Stock, with Circular containing price, cnpacity, 
directions for use, etc., forwarded, postage paid, on receipt of ten cents. Circulars sent free. 

BARROWS, SAVERY & CO., 

Manufacturers. 

JAMES C. HABTB 6l CO., Factors. 

Philadelphia, Sept., 1871. 




Knox's Patent and Improved £a^le. Improved Swivel 

—for Side Hill and I^evel Land, that leave no 

Ridg^es or Dead Fnrro^vs. Boston Steel 

Clipper. Sessions and liiiox's 

Patent Hard Steel. Mapes' 

Improved Subsoil. 



THE AMERICAN HAY TEDDER, 




Enables the most important Agricultural product of America to be cut, cured and stored in the 
barn in one day. Improves the quality and increases the value of the Hay Crop. Prevents all 
risk of damage from storms and sudden showers. Is simple, durable and of light draft. Was 
awarded the New England Agricultural Society's only First Prize at the Great Field Trial nc 
Amherst, Mass., in 1869, as being: superior to all others, and the best and only perfect machine for 
tedding or turning hay. 



THE PERRY GOLD 



Burt's Self.Adjusting- Horse Hay Rake. Boston Horse Hoe. 

Frencli's Patent Cultivator. Harring^ton's Patent 

Sin^si'le or Combined Seed. So-wer and 

Hand Cultivator. 



AMES PLOW COMPANY, 

Manufacturers of Agricultural Implements and Machines, Dealers in Seeds, Fertilizers and other 
requirements of Agriculturists and Agricultural Districts. Factories at Worcester and Ayer, 

Warehouses, Quincy Hall, Boston, and 53 Beekman Street, JVew York, 

^"ORDERS FILIiED PROMPTLY. 

Price Lists and Descriptive Circulars on application. 



JONES, FAULKNER & CO., 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

earn Dairy Apparatus. 



IRON-CLAD MILK CANS AND PAILS, 

PRESS SCREWS AND CHEESE HOOPS, 

CHEESE AND BUTTER TRYERS, 
TORNADO, BLANCHARD AND DASH CHURNS. 



DEALEKS IN EVERY DESCRIPTION OF 



DAIRY FURNISHING GOODS. 

We keep constantly in stock 
UPKIGHT ANI> HORIZONTAL. 

For Factory use, and also for Steaming and Cooking; Food for 

Stock. 



STEAM PUMPS, HAND FORCE PUMPS, STEAM PIPES, 

VAXaVES, COCKS, aAUG£S, %VBIST£cES, &.c. 
THERMOMETERS \m MILK-TESTL\G INSTRUMEXTS OF ALL KI^DS, 



We are prepared to fit up Cheese Factories, on 
short notice, -with everything" com- 
plete for operation. 



;^° Send for Illustrated Price r.ist. 



Nos. 31 GENESEE & 6 JOHN STS., 

Utica, N. Y. 



Near Bags's Hotel. 



Jk. rF'TTT ■!- - SIEST OIF 




They extract the animal heat from the milk and keep it at the desired temnPi-nfiM-^ ,•„ 
^^iviSVy^fa^t^^A^l'^^^^^^^^^ profitable, and are adapted to lar^^e and small 



READ THE TESTIIMEOM-ZAILS : 

Pans ove^\.TM^^''n'^fr7;u;geme^\%7or\''uUe7^^^^^^^ "^Vh.f,T t';"\'' «"Pcriarity of the Jewett Patent Millc 

, „ ™ ' '" ' ■ A. M. BENNET. 

butter sens J,"^J!i^f;^J? ai^'/fol- tCL^^Lfs^rn^^'.^fn'not'lrVve'^'o'Jf 4hT^^ "j/r^^";* °'-''«'- """' ^^^^ ^<^-t -^ the 
after all the disiidvantAKes «"iich I Imve l" bOTed n^ *"";' f'''^ estimate: but I can say, 

satisfaction. My pans are l.rjre eno Kh for fifty cows • 'l IWvt 1 ari n v'l'A"' f l^ ^"^^' .T °*''« ^'^'^ «^eat 
elevate the water about ten feet and i( t-ikps fli.mir fl^» i,.,r.ViT?„ . ^ twenty-seven the r>:ist season. I 

one-flfth more butter, wlueh sol 1 for five rents r.reDernn[,nd ^Tf7<.^""'°i''T^.",""" '",'""• """^ "-'kes about 
dairy than with tlie small milk pan^^ I woukl smt fnr^h.To^fflf^Vf. "''"*''','^ ',*^*» lal.ortotake care of a 
that It can be used for the pans an 1 therconduc'tid into -i tronih'forV'ff'i;'"? 'l"^*^ to elevate tl,e water, 
them in the Urst place. I am s6 well leased 'n"th the nan, t^^^^^^^^^ ^""^ "^ ^''®." "-^ '" ''"'"P '* foi^ 

cows aniither season, and procure another set of puns ^ ' increase my dairy to one hundred 

Brasher Iron Works, N. Y., Sept., 1S7I. 

^ R. W. SMITH. 



set of^he'j|;?tf Pafe"n\'' M^yrp'msimnL^,^"^.^ ^•'^^'"'•^^ ^\ ^nlone, N. Y.. have had in use three 

other arrangements for mlk nl. b t i'/. nnd^w! ;'f7""^'f.!3 !'/?.«"««'?."' to give it the 



the weather hot or cold 
condition ; it makes b 

Kde^croveran'othT/arrangem^^^^^ These advantages ,rre"s„fflcientlogive"i't The 

men everywhere. 'irrangements for making butter, and we recommend it to the attention of d'lirv! 

Malone, Sept. 22, 1871. SEYMOUR L. ANDRUS 

J<>HN C. Win.IAMSON 
LEVI M. ELDKED. 




E. REEVE. 



territorTror'Ivln'clfto"mnn'*uf^^^^^ ^'^ pnrohase terrilory, or to secure 

Bunsro.^ r-rnnklin Co., N. Y^^Ji^^o^^y^f, ^^r4^^L'ThrJe^iV^dT,f,^.-:;^:^tT^f. «• ^- *^^^^^-' ^' ^^th 

Malone, F^Sn Co." i?. ?!^{]:; *„" vl^^ Srri'nThVfo'r^'fJ^^f J'^'^ York,*nddress L. R. Towsend, 
place, and ,s an authorized agent for theSe of al/unsold tenTtory:^ '"''^""^•'^'''"'•«« t"^'» ^^ ^^at 



_ L R. TOWNSEND, 

Malone, Tranklin Co., N. TT. 



B. F. JEWETT, 

Worth Bangror, Franklin Co., KT. Y. 



xjTic^, isr. Y., 



MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN 



Cheese Factory an 




^sLKrx> sxj:e3^=*XjI:ie3s. 



In the apparatus line, wo would call attention to 



THEONEI 




(See Pages 389 and 391,) 



The Best and Cheapest Vat in the World. 

It is suited to all classes of Cheese Factories and Dairies. Over 1,000 are alreadj' used in 
the former, and 1,500 in the latter. 

S^~ It will innke more cheese from a eiveii qiiniitity of milk than can be mtide by 
nny other apparatus, and with less of labor and fuel. Superiority of quality is an 
invariable result. 

N(i additional expense is incurred in setting up; it is ready for ttse. Simple in construc- 
tion and operation, it is readily understood, and not liable to any accident in use. Tliere is 
nothing to explode about it, nor any parts to fill up by hard water scale. The heating is 
perfect in all respects, and easily controlled. It is very durable. 

■WE ALSO SELL 

STEAI AND "HOT WATER CIRCDLATIE" APPARATUS 

For Cheese Factories, and all articles and fittings for setting up same. 



CUED MILLS, 

FEESS HOOPS 



AND SCREWS, 



And all otiier implements and articles nsed in ciieese-making'. 

A GOOD ASSORTMENT OF 



e-Makers' F 



ngSy 



^ucli as KEi\I\ETS, best Irfrnds; AiVrVATTO, dry and extracts; 

PRESS and BAIVI>A€iE CI.OXUS, <&c., &c., 

al'%vays on hand. 

We shall endeavor to "keep up with the times" in being able to supply all new inven- 
tions, if of value. 

Descriptive Circulars and Prices sent on application. Address 



WM. RALPH & CO., Utica, N. Y. 



IMPORTAIVT TO MIRYMEIV, STOCK-RAISERS AND FARMERS! 



(COPYR-IOHO?.) 





NE FILIN 




]VATURE'S O'WN CONDITION POWDERS, 

(PA-TEISTT ^I>JPLIEr> FOR,,) 

FOR FEEDING 

CimE. STOCK OF ffl mis. JIIID POETRY, 

OF BOTH SEXES, ALL AGES AlVD EVERY CONDITIOIV. 

Prepared from pure, selected, hard bone, by a formula originating- with ourselves Guaran- 
teed by analysis g-iven below and to contain no injurious or deleterious substances. For the use 
of stock ot all kinds, it is recommended by the highest and best authority in our own as well a^ 
foreigri countries. Being rich in Fhosphatic matter, in a concentrated form, it sunolies the 
animal directly with the elements so essential to the promotion of a rapid growth of BODY 
BONE and MUSCLE elements, of which the soil has been totally depleted by constant cropping! 
An undoubted remedy for the dairy scourge— aboHion in cows. r j " lui^t-iug. 

"^.A ''^Py °* *^® essay— "The Abortions of Cows: What is the Cause and what the 
Kemedy?" sent on receipt of 3-cent P. O. stamp. ^ ^^^ 

To place this valuable compound within the reach of all, we have put it in small packages, 
as well as barrels, and will be sent by express, as directed, on receipt ot the price :-Bbls., $13 each! 
JraCKages, o ID., 51I ; iU ID., 51J-10 each. 

Address JOHN RALSTOX & CO., 

170 rront St., Wew York, Sole Proprietors. 

AISTALYSIS. 

SHEFFIELD SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL OF YALE COLLEGE. ) 
New Haven, Conn., Sept. 16, 1871. J 

comp^sulon hf IM^partfr''* ^""^ filings," received from John Ralston & Co.. New York, has the following 

Moisture o on 

Sand "-SV 

Chloride of Sodium [ o'™ 

Bone Phosphate of Lime .......'..'.'.'.'.". 57 ^ 

/-. , . (With some Magnesia and Fluoriiie not separateiyestimat^^^ 

Carbonate of Lime j v;o.,iuia,i,cu.^ 

Ossein (yielding gelatine) with a little fat .....'.'.'.'.".'.".'.■.'.'.'.'.'.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.'.■.■.■.■.■.■.■.■;.■.■.■.■.■ 25!?5 

Rodinm^'^ ^''™^'® consists of F^rj/ Pwre Bone, in a state of fine division, with 2% per cent.Tf Chloride of 
soaium. Lfeigned,] SAM'L W. JOHNSON. 



JOHI\a RALS TO N & CO., 
170 Front Street, ]Vew York, 

WHOLESALE AND RETAIL DEALERS IN 

OP KNOWN EXCELLENCE ONLY. (GUARANTEED BY ANALYSIS.) 

Wo. 1 FERUVZASr GUAZrO (Chincha or Guanape), 

Direct from the Gov't consignees. In original packages-2,340 lbs. to ton-at gold prices. 

CLES^f L^L^^Si^5F?fiS^S?_^^ MATTER, and ALL ARTI- 

LEACHED ASHES, FISH SCRAP and NOVA SCOTIA PLASTER FURNISHED BY THE CARGO. 

quota^ro^L"Snrr^7t?o^fc!L:lflTti^creiiT^^ ^"**- D-eriptive Circulars and reliable 

tion gulffietdlaTvery'caleT^" ^''''' *° P"'^'''^^^ ^'^ ^°^"^<i t° correspond with us. Satisfac 



THOROUGHLY TESTED. — PERFECT IN EVERY RESPECT. 




PREMIU 




Has been before the public for a longer time than any other fixture of its kind, and has proved 
to be the best apparatus ever offered to the public for the manufacture of cheese. These Vats 
are furnished wiih an Improved Heater and Valves to Regulate the Heat. By this means 
the heat is perfectly controlled, and they are rendered the Most Efficient, Simple and Dubablf 
Vats iu use. Manufactured and for sale by 

H. H. ROE & CO., 

IMEadison, Lake County, Ohio. 



We respectfully invite the attention of all interested in Cheese Making' to our list of manu- 
factures, comprisinff everything necessary for the equipment of 

From a Dairy of 20 to a Factory of 8,000 Cows. 

We mention in this connection only a few of the more important of these, such as 

Single ov Associated I>airy and Factory Vats, >vitli Impi-oxed 
Heaters ; Large Factory Vats, complete, >vitlt Fipes tor 
I>istri1>ution of Steam ; Card l>raii»ers ; Presses ^ 
Hoops ; Scre^vs ; Carrying Cans ; ^Veigli- 
ing Caas ; Sackers ; Conductors, 
* &c., &c., &c. 

We use only the best materials, and employ the most experienced workmen in making thes< 
jroods. In this way we are able to guarantee everything to be of the best quality in market 
A trial could not fail to convince of this. 



FACTORY AND DAIRY SUPPLIES. 

There has been, heretofore, no place this side of the State of New York, where a full list oi 
Dairy and Factory Supplies could be obtained at all times, and on short notice. We have determ- 
ined lo supply this need, deeply felt by the dairymen of Ohio and the West, in whose interesty 
our business will be conducted, and the continuance of whose patronage, so liberallyextended tu 
us during the past, we earnestlj'' solicit for the future. 

AVe shall endeavor to keep constantly on hand a full assortment of Cheese Bandage 
Strainer Cloth, Annatto, Annattoine, Rennets, Factory Filled Salt, Curd Knives, 

THERMOMETEtiS, MILK-'I'ESTING INSTRUMENTS, SCALES, CURD SCOOPS, MiLK PAILS, and in faCt 

tvcrything wanted in the manufacture of Cheese. 

^^ Seud for Circular and Price List. Please state where you saw this notice. 

B. B. ROE 6l CO. 



CHARLES MILLAR & SON, 

Wo. 1S7 and 129 Genesee Street, Utica, W. Y., 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

MILLAR'S PATENT CIRCULATING 

COIL HEATERS AND CHEESE VATS. 

PositiTely the 1>est clieese-malfing apparatus in tlie ^rorld. In 

use ill tlie l>est Cheese Factories and private dairies 

tliroug-hout tlie United States and Australia. 

gag~ Satisfaction guaranteed in every case. 



ALSO, MANtTPACTURERS OB" 

MILLAR'S PATENT RATCHET CHEESE PRESS SCREWS, 

PATENT MILK CAI^S, 

MILK PAIL8, 

CAN HANDLES, 

CURD AGITATORS, 

AND OTHER GREAT IMPROVEMENTS IN CHEESE FACTORY AND 

DAIRY UTENSILS. 

MILLAR'S RUBBER PRESS RINGS, 

an invention of decided value. They prevent the curd from pressing- up around the follower 
of a cheese hoop, and take the place of press cloths. In pressing- after the cheese has been 
bandaged, they prevent tiie bursting of the bandage at the edge. This of itself renders them 
invaluaNe to the cheese-maker. 

Iil^~ Illustrated Circulars, siviiigr full information, mailed on application. 

Address CHARLES MILLAR & SON, 

Utica, N. IT. 



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